Central American countries most affected by plastic bottle pollution
The first regional study to track plastic bottles (and caps) on beaches and coastal cities in 10 Latin American countries
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Bottles found on a beach on Gorgona Island, Colombia.
view moreCredit: Photo: Ostin Garcés
Most of the plastic bottles and caps that pollute the Pacific coasts of Latin American countries are of local origin, and are mainly produced by the multinational companies The Coca-Cola Company, Aje Group and PepsiCo. The countries most affected by these pollutants are those in Central America, probably due to high consumption of beverages in plastic containers, poor waste management and transport by ocean currents. On the island coasts, bottles of Asian origin are more abundant, probably dumped from ships and transported by currents.
These are some revealing findings of the first regional study to track plastic bottles (and caps) on beaches and coastal cities in 10 Latin American countries. Along more than 12,000 kilometres of Pacific coastline from Mexico to Chile — including islands such as Rapa Nui (Easter Island), the Galápagos and Robinson Crusoe — the study sampled a total of 92 mainland beaches, 15 island beaches and 38 human settlements.
The paper, published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, involves researchers Miquel Canals and Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez, from the Consolidated Research Group in Marine Geosciences of the Faculty of Earth Sciences of the University of Barcelona, who are also director and member, respectively, of the UB Chair on Sustainable Blue Economy, sponsored by the environmental consultancy Tecnoambiente.
The study, which covered Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile, relied heavily on citizen science, thanks to the involvement and collaboration of 1,000 volunteers and 200 local leaders from 74 social organizations.
Faced with the problem of plastic pollution, the study warns of the urgent need to strengthen local waste management and to implement regional actions to reduce the environmental impact of these products. Given that the most consumed products are single-serve and single-use bottles, it is recommended that the production of returnable and reusable packaging be encouraged by the companies that produce them.
Bottles carrying information
Plastic pollution is a problem that affects the entire planet. On the coasts, plastic bottles and caps are a major component of accumulated litter and it is therefore essential to identify where they come from in order to improve the management of this type of waste and prevent its environmental impacts.
Between 2023 and 2024, citizens and other participants collaborated with scientists to collect samples of plastic beverage containers and their caps as part of the most ambitious study to date on Latin America’s Pacific coast to determine the abundance, source and characteristics of these pollutants.
“In addition to the great value of citizen science, a particularly remarkable element of the work carried out is the intelligent use of the information contained in the bottles and their caps (labels, engravings) to obtain key information about the manufacturer, and the date and place of manufacture, among others,” says Miquel Canals, professor at the Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics. “This allowed us to identify the sources of this contamination and the route taken by individual items until they reach the beach or town where they were collected.”
Soft drinks, energy drinks and water containers were the most common, reflecting regional trends in beverage consumption. Most of the bottles were single-serve bottles, which contributes to inadequate waste management and increased environmental impact. Single bottles, with and without caps, predominated in urban areas and on mainland beaches (54.9%), while bottles with caps were more common (73.4%) on island beaches.
Fifty-three percent of the beverage bottles and caps collected had visible dates, while 59% of the items with identifiable origin were from Latin American Pacific countries themselves. A total of 356 brands belonging to 253 companies were identified, the most frequent being The Coca-Cola Company, Aje Group and PepsiCo.
The oldest objects were a Powerade® bottle from 2001, collected on a mainland beach in Peru, and a Coca-Cola® bottle from 2002, found on a Chilean island.
In general, the predominant bottles were less than one year old, while the highest percentages of older bottles were found on island beaches in Chile and Ecuador, as well as on mainland beaches in Mexico, El Salvador and Costa Rica.
“These findings point to a spatial pattern in the age of the items: the most recent ones predominate in human settlements, while the oldest ones are found on beaches, especially on the beaches of oceanic islands,” says researcher Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez, lead author of the study and member of the UB’s Consolidated Research Group in Marine Geosciences and the University of La Guajira (Colombia).
Bottles of local origin, but also Asian, European and North American
Regarding the origin of the bottles, the majority of those analysed with an identifiable origin (59.2%) came from Pacific countries of Latin America. Smaller proportions came from Asia (1.8%), North America (0.3%) and Europe (0.04%). In 38.7% of cases, the origin could not be identified.
“On the mainland beaches of Mexico, Guatemala and the southern countries — Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile — most of the bottles came from the same country. In contrast, in the Central American countries — El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama — the percentages of locally sourced items were significantly lower, with those of external origin predominating,” the authors note.
On the island beaches, 42.4% of the bottles came from Latin American countries, but also had the highest percentage of items of Asian origin, and smaller proportions of European and North American origin. Panama showed the greatest diversity of origins, with items from at least six Latin American, Asian and North American countries. The island beaches of Rapa Nui and the Galápagos had very low percentages of locally sourced bottles and high proportions of products from Asia.
“The distribution of bottle origins is not random, but geographically structured, with a predominance of specific countries of origin in specific environments and sub-regions, and also in specific countries, of course,” the authors say. “This trend would reflect the consumption habits, waste management practices (where they exist) and oceanographic transport processes that influence the distribution of these plastic pollutants.”
“The study also identified the presence of epibionts — organisms that live on other living things or surfaces, such as those on plastic bottles and caps, and which are indicators of the exposure and residence times of objects in the marine environment — in 8.8% of the bottles found on beaches on average, a proportion that was higher on mainland beaches in Central American countries. This pattern reinforces the idea of plastic bottles and caps arriving at these sites via marine currents.
Towards greater individual, social and corporate responsibility
Raising public awareness about respect for the environment, promoting the use of reusable packaging and strengthening the corporate social responsibility of producers — together with international actions such as the UN Global Plastic Treaty — are essential strategies to reduce plastic pollution and protect coastal ecosystems. These actions could be replicated in other regions of the world to minimise the human footprint on natural environments and improve the healthiness of urban environments.
“In the future, we want to analyse the impact of seasonal climatic variations, river inputs and tourist activity on the dynamics of plastic bottle and cap pollution on coasts and in coastal cities. Oceanographic modelling could also be integrated to track the transport trajectories of plastic litter in the ocean and thus identify distant sources of pollution,” conclude Miquel Canals and Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez.
Bottle collection in El Salvador.
Sorting bottles in Costa Rica.
Credit
Photo: Mauricio Ergas
Bottles and caps collected on the beach in Puntarenas, Costa Rica.
Credit
Photo: Científicos de la Basura
Journal
Journal of Cleaner Production
Method of Research
Observational study
Subject of Research
Not applicable
Article Title
Abundance, provenance, and characteristics of plastic beverage bottles in human settlements and on beaches of the Latin American Pacific region: a citizen science study
Article Publication Date
24-Jul-2025
Electron beam irradiation helping to turn plastic waste into gas
New technique decomposes Teflon-like fluoroplastics efficiently, paving the way for eco-friendly recycling of persistent materials
The National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology
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Plastics like PTFE, commonly known as Teflon, are durable, yet difficult to decompose. Moreover, traditional methods for decomposing PTFE require extremely high temperatures and massive energy inputs. Now, however, researchers from Japan have put forth a promising method for enhancing the energy efficiency of PTFE recycling.
view moreCredit: Dr. Akira Idesaki from National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, Japan
Plastics like Teflon are famously durable — and infamously difficult to recycle. But a breakthrough from researchers at the National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology (QST) may offer a powerful new solution.
The team, led by Senior Principal Researcher Dr. Akira Idesaki, has developed a technique using electron beam (EB) irradiation to break down polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) into gaseous products, effectively transforming a solid, heat-resistant fluoropolymer into useful chemical components. Their results are published in the journal Radiation Physics and Chemistry and made available online on 3 June, 2025.
“By applying heat during irradiation, we were able to reduce the energy required to decompose PTFE by 50% compared to traditional methods,” said Dr. Idesaki. “This makes large-scale recycling of fluoropolymers much more viable.”
PTFE — best known by the trade name Teflon — is widely used in electronics, medical devices, and nonstick cookware. Its resistance to heat and chemicals comes from its strong carbon-fluorine bonds, which also make it a member of the environmentally persistent family of substances known as PFAS which are informally called “forever chemicals.”
Traditional methods for decomposing PTFE, such as pyrolysis, require extremely high temperatures (600-1000 °C) and massive energy input. The QST team demonstrated that heating PTFE to 370 °C and irradiating it with an EB in the air allowed them to convert 100% of the plastic into gas.
Gases from solids: The chemistry of breakdown
The key to the method is combining heat with radiation. When PTFE powder was irradiated with a dose of 5 MGy at 30 °C, only 10% decomposed. But at 270 °C, that number rose to 86%. At 370 °C, full decomposition was achieved.
The main gases released during the process were oxidized fluorocarbons — chemical compounds that contain both fluorine and oxygen and perfluoroalkanes – compounds containing fluorine and carbon. The research team identified them using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. These gases could be collected and reused as raw materials in chemical industries, helping to support a more sustainable, circular use of resources.
Structural transformation and crystallinity
The researchers also found that heating PTFE during EB irradiation caused changes in its internal structure. The small crystal units inside the material became larger, which suggests that the material underwent a reorganization. Infrared and X-ray analysis showed that most of the oxidized chemicals were removed, meaning the PTFE was efficiently broken down into gas.
“High-temperature irradiation not only enhances decomposition but also changes the internal structure of PTFE,” noted the first-author Dr. Hao Yu, a researcher at QST. “This helps explain why the process becomes more energy-efficient as the temperature rises.”
Toward industrial application
Based on their data, the researchers estimate that this new approach could cut the energy cost of PTFE recycling from 2.8~4 MWh per ton — typical for pyrolysis (high temperature)— by 50% using EB irradiation. This level of efficiency could make it commercially attractive for industries that generate PTFE waste.
“We hope this technology will contribute to the safer, cleaner, and more cost-effective recycling of high-performance plastics,” said co-author Dr. Yasunari Maekawa, who led the research project.
About National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, Japan
The National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology (QST) was established in April 2016 to promote quantum science and technology in a comprehensive and integrated manner. The new organization was formed from the merger of the National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS) with certain operations that were previously undertaken by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA).
QST is committed to advancing quantum science and technology, creating world-leading research and development platforms, and exploring new fields, thereby achieving significant academic, social, and economic impacts.
Website: https://www.qst.go.jp/site/qst-english/
About Senior Principal Researcher Akira Idesaki
Dr. Akira Idesaki works at the Takasaki Institute for Advanced Quantum Science (TIAQ), National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, Japan. His research focuses on materials processing and material characteristics and has published more than 60 papers on these topics, which have received more than 480 citations. His research is published on topics like fabrication of ceramic materials, evaluation of radiation resistance, and more.
Journal
Radiation Physics and Chemistry
Method of Research
Experimental study
Subject of Research
Not applicable
Article Title
Effects of temperature on the decomposition of PTFE induced by electron beam irradiation
Article Publication Date
24 JULY 2025
COI Statement
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Yasunari Maekawa received a research grant from the Japan Science and Technology Agency. Hao Yu, Akira Idesaki, and Yasunari Maekawa have two pending patent applications with the Japan Patent Office: Japanese Patent Application No. 2023–17122 and No. 2024–114780. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Breakthrough engineered enzyme for recycling of PET bottle and blended fibers at moderate temperatures
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Engineered PET2 Enzyme for Recycling of PET Bottle and Blended Fibers at Moderate Temperatures
view moreCredit: Akihiko Nakamura
Summary
- Addressing the global plastic waste crisis, particularly hard-to-recycle blended PET fibers, demands environmentally friendlier recycling methods.
- Researchers engineered a novel PET hydrolase PET2-21M and established large-scale production in yeast. This enzyme dramatically boosted PET bottle-grade PET breakdown.
- In parallel, its direct precursor PET2-14M-6Hot successfully degraded challenging blended fibers (PET/cotton, PET/PU) at moderate temperatures.
- This breakthrough offers a promising, energy-efficient path for a circular plastics economy, accelerating industrial-scale recycling of diverse polymer wastes.
A research team led by Professor Akihiko Nakamura of the Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University (also a cross-appointment professor at the Institute for Molecular Science until March 2025), in collaboration with Researchers Takashi Matsuzaki and Toshiyuki Saeki of Kirin Holdings Co., Ltd., Professor Ryota Iino of the Institute for Molecular Science, and Professor Nobuyasu Koga of the Institute for Protein Research, The University of Osaka, have successfully engineered a novel PET hydrolase enzyme, PET2-21M, achieving a remarkable improvement in the biodegradation of bottle-grade polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics. High activity toward PET/cotton and PET/polyurethane (PU) textile blends was also demonstrated separately with the closely related variant PET2-14M-6Hot. This significant breakthrough addresses the urgent global challenge of recycling PET waste by offering a sustainable and efficient alternative to conventional recycling processes.
PET is a widely utilized synthetic polymer prominent in bottles, textiles, and packaging materials, representing approximately 83% of the synthetic fiber market. Despite its intrinsic recyclability, traditional mechanical recycling methods frequently result in material quality degradation and exhibit limited effectiveness for complex blended materials such as PET/cotton and PET/PU. Chemical recycling, while capable of producing high-purity materials, typically demands harsh conditions and environmentally hazardous reagents, thus limiting its practical sustainability.
In response, enzymatic recycling has emerged as an attractive alternative due to its capability to depolymerize PET into its original monomeric constituents under milder aqueous conditions. To enhance the PET-degrading efficiency of the enzyme PET2, researchers adopted an extensive engineering strategy. They systematically employed both random and targeted mutagenesis, combining seven newly identified beneficial mutations with a previously-reported engineered variant PET2-7M, resulting in the highly active PET2-14M enzyme. Additional surface modifications, which introduced positive charges to improve substrate binding, and strategic alterations in the substrate-binding cleft based on another enzyme HotPETase as a structural template, led to the creation of PET2-14M-6Hot. Further optimization produced the final engineered variant PET2-21M. Furthermore, large-scale productions of the PET2-14M-6Hot and PET2-21M were achieved in the yeast host, Komagataella phaffii. Notably, PET2-14M-6Hot reached yields of up to 691 mg L⁻¹ after 137 hours of cultivation, demonstrating high expression efficiency without glycosylation-induced heterogeneity.
The PET2-21M demonstrated significantly enhanced catalytic activity compared to the original enzyme wild-type PET2, with initial small-scale assays revealing a total product yield approximately 28.6 times greater. Subsequent scaled-up experiments in 300 mL reactors further validated these improvements; notably, PET2-21M depolymerized approximately 95% of commercial bottle-grade PET powder (20 g L⁻¹) within 24 hours at 60 °C, while the benchmark enzyme LCC-ICCG required its optimal temperature of 72 °C to reach a comparable conversion of 91%.
The superiority of PET2-21M was particularly evident under reduced enzyme loading conditions. Even when enzyme concentration was halved to 2.5 mg L⁻¹, PET2-21M maintained around 50% degradation efficiency, nearly doubling the performance of LCC-ICCG, which achieved only 26% conversion under identical conditions. This highlights PET2-21M’s substantial potential to lower catalytic requirements and associated costs.
Importantly, PET2-21M retained its competitive advantage under higher substrate loading conditions (40 g L⁻¹). At an enzyme dosage of 10 mg L⁻¹, PET2-21M achieved a 79% conversion at 60 °C, closely rivaling LCC-ICCG’s 95% conversion at its higher optimal temperature (72 °C). Furthermore, upon reducing enzyme dosage to 5 mg L⁻¹, PET2-21M still outperformed LCC-ICCG, demonstrating a 44% conversion compared to 29% for LCC-ICCG. This robust performance at moderate temperatures and reduced enzyme-to-substrate ratios positions PET2-21M as a highly promising candidate for industrial PET recycling processes, potentially enabling substantial reductions in both energy consumption and catalyst expenditure.
To evaluate the recycling potential of engineered PET hydrolases for textile waste, the PET2-14M-6Hot was compared with the benchmark enzyme LCC-ICCG on pure PET fibers and textile blends. At 60 °C, PET2-14M-6Hot generated 75.7 mM total degradation products from pure PET fibers within 24 hours, representing a 1.4-fold improvement over LCC-ICCG tested at its optimal 70 °C. Similarly, PET2-14M-6Hot achieved higher catalytic efficiency on PET/cotton (65/35 wt%) blends, producing 62.8 mM products versus 46.7 mM by LCC-ICCG, with minimal interference from cotton fibers.
For the challenging PET/PU textile blends (85/15 wt%), both enzymes exhibited reduced activity above PU’s glass-transition temperature (Tg ≈ 55 °C). Nevertheless, at a lower reaction temperature of 50 °C, PET2-14M-6Hot maintained substantial catalytic activity, yielding 19.2 mM degradation products—more than double the 8.2 mM obtained by LCC-ICCG under identical conditions. This underscores PET2-14M-6Hot’s superior capacity for processing complex blended textiles, which have traditionally resisted enzymatic degradation.
These results confirm the engineered PET2 enzyme family's significant potential for industrial-scale enzymatic recycling. Their ability to efficiently degrade diverse PET waste streams, including challenging textile blends at moderate temperatures, strongly supports broader applicability and sustainability benefits in PET recycling processes.
These findings represent a substantial advance towards realizing a more sustainable and economically viable circular plastics economy. The engineered PET2 enzymes’ superior ability to depolymerize PET and complex fiber blends at moderate temperatures holds significant promise for practical industrial recycling operations, particularly in handling difficult-to-process blended textile waste. Future research efforts target further optimization of enzyme efficiency at even lower reaction temperatures and in the blended materials, ultimately facilitating broader industrial adoption and minimizing the environmental footprint of global plastic recycling efforts.
Information of the paper
Authors: Takashi Matsuzaki, Toshiyuki Saeki, Fuhito Yamazaki, Natsuka Koyama, Tatsunori Okubo, Daiki Hombe, Yui Ogura, Yoshihito Hashino, Rie Tatsumi-Koga, Nobuyasu Koga, Ryota Iino, Akihiko Nakamura
Journal Name: ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
Journal Title: "Development and Production of Moderate-Thermophilic PET Hydrolase for PET Bottle and Fiber Recycling"
DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c01602
Journal
ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
Method of Research
Experimental study
Subject of Research
Not applicable
Article Title
Development and Production of Moderate-Thermophilic PET Hydrolase for PET Bottle and Fiber Recycling
Article Publication Date
27-Jul-2025
