It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Wednesday, June 21, 2023
Italy Seizes Six Additional C&T Ferries During Fraud Investigation
Pietro Novelli is one of six additional ferries seized in the fraud probe (Caronte & Tourist file photo)
Italian authorities yesterday expanded their seizure of ferries operated by Caronte & Tourist and its sister company Siremar as part of the ongoing allegations of fraud and profiteering from the fraud. The expansion of the seizures is disrupting critical ferry service from Sicily to the outlying islands, impacting both residents who depend on the vessels for transportation and the growing number of tourists during the summer season.
Officers from the Guardia di Finanza, which is responsible for dealing with financial crime, moved to impound six additional ferries on the orders of the court. According to media reports, the judge ruled that the three vessels detained on June 6 did not have sufficient financial value to cover the extent of the potential claims. The seizure is being called a “preventive action,” in response to the allegations of fraud by the company and four of its current and former directors.
Early in June, prosecutors in Palermo started a court action in response to allegations that the company misrepresented the capabilities of its vessels and has failed to meet the terms of a 2016 government contract to maintain the vital ferry service. According to the reports, the company attested to the fact that its ferries would be accessible for individuals with limited mobility, including the elderly, people with limited mobility, wheelchairs, and pregnant women, but prosecutors charge the vessels are not accessible and the company has not upgraded them to meet the requirements of the contract. Further, they allege the company is taking public funds and profiting from the contract while not meeting the requirement to ensure the service is fully accessible.
The court on June 6 ordered the seizure of three ferries along with cash valued at approximately €30 million. The company later asked the court to release the vessels saying it was creating a hardship due to the lack of service. The court refused to release the ferries Bridge, Helga, and Ulisse. The expanded order now also includes the ferries Vesta, Isola di Vulcano, Sansovino, Isola di Stromboli, Antonello da Messina, and Pietro Novelli, in service between the Aeolian and Egadi islands.
The company responded to the latest moves saying it was doing everything it could to guarantee service. They said they were using other ships and looking to other owners to provide vessels to maintain the routes. Despite that, reports surfaced in the media today that ferries especially on the route between Milazzo and the Aeolian Islands had been skipped yesterday. One of the vessels seized yesterday, the Vesta, had been used to replace the Bridge seized on June 6. Media reports said the routes between Milazzo to Vulcano and Lipari were suspended.
Mayors from eight of the municipalities impacted by the loss of service to the islands of Sicily joined in sending a letter to the national government citing the broad impact on the region. They are calling for an immediate operational solution to restore the services.
The company faced similar charges of fraud in 2020 in Messina. In addition, the company has been under investigation for reported ties to the Italian mafia. Management insisted in their response that they are innocent and will work to resolve the situation as quickly as possible.
China Retrofits Bulker with First Domestically-Built Wind Rotor Sails
First bulker with domestically-built rotor sails departed on June 17 as part of a demonstration project (CSSC)
China State Shipbuilding (CSSC) is reporting that it completed the first installation of a domestically designed and built rotor on a commercial ship as a prototype of the technology. The pictures show four rotors retrofitted between the hatches on a bulker.
The installation project was completed at CSSC’s Chengxi Shipbuilding Co., with a decade old 45,500 dwt bulker fitted with the rotors. The vessel, the Chang Hang Sheng Hai, was built in 2012. It departed the CSSC shipyard on June 17 to return to service as part of the demonstration project for the technology.
The vessel, which is 623 feet in length, has four rotors each standing approximately 80 feet in height with a diameter of 10 feet. They appear to be the latest adaptation of the Flettner rotor concept developed a century ago by German engineer Anton Flettner harnessing the Magnus effect documented by German physicist Gustav Magnus, who explored fluid dynamics.
CSSC reports the marine wind boosting rotor project was led by Xixi and jointly developed by several units completing the theoretical research, principal prototype development, and testing. The project lasted three years also working on the engineering prototype design, manufacturing, installation, and commissioning. The installation on the vessel is the next step in further testing and verification.
Rotors were retrofitted to a bulker built in 2012 (CSSC)
They report that their tests show the rotors will provide more than a five percent energy saving and commensurate reduction in emissions. They believe the technology will be best suited to bulk carriers and large oil tankers.
China’s entry into the segment comes as Finland-based Norsepower and UK-based Anemoi Marine Technologies have been moving forward with efforts to expand their commercialization of the technology. Both companies have reported pilot projects to demonstrate their versions of the technology.
Anemoi reported in October 2022 that it had reached a deal with China’s COSCO Shipping Heavy Industry Co. to offer customers the option to install Anemoi’s Rotor Sails on newbuild vessels or retrofit during dry dock in any of COSCO’s nine shipyards.
Norsepower reported in March 2023 that it had raised €28 million in additional investments that will be used to scale up production and expand the reach of its fuel-saving and emissions-reducing technology. Norsepower highlights that it has 250,000 operating hours of verified performance data acquired from installations in collaboration with customers including Bore, Sea-Cargo, Scandlines, Vale, CLdN, Nippon Marine, and Socatra. Norsepower has estimated that there are currently 30,000 vessels on the water that can benefit from the installation of rotor sails
PowerCell Tests First Methanol-to-Hydrogen Fuel Cell Power System
Hydrogen fuel cell supplier PowerCell and methanol-to-hydrogen reformer builder e1 Marine have finished a shoreside "string test" by connecting up their respective equipment to create a 200kW H2-powered propulsion system. The resulting system of systems takes methanol in and puts out electrical power at the far end, without an internal combustion engine. CO2 and water are the only emissions.
The test is a technology trial for the future inland pushboat MV Hydrogen One, which will be built around an all-fuel-cell propulsion system. The system is the first of its kind, according to PowerCell, and could be used for workboats, push-boats and superyachts. It will be deployed aboard MV Hydrogen One beginning next year, according to owner Maritime Partners LLC.
The sponsors believe that methanol-to-hydrogen will be a practical solution because methanol is easier to handle than compressed or liquid hydrogen gas. Hydrogen requires complex systems for onboard storage and transfer, which affects the vessel's overall design; methanol is a common commodity, and its requirements for use as a marine fuel are comparatively simple and well-known.
PowerCell Group has pioneered megawatt-scale fuel cell systems for the maritime sector, which are fully marinized for shipboard installation. It believes that fuel cell power is one of the most effective means of using green methanol, produced from renewable energy, to power a low-emissions ship.
“The successful completion of these tests gives future ship owners, integrators and methanol suppliers the confidence they need in this powerful combination of technologies. Fuel cells are some of the most efficient ways to extract energy from fuel, and we are deploying them at a scale never seen before," said Richard Berkling, CEO at PowerCell Group. "This can be seen in our project with Torghatten Nord, where we will supply 12.8 MW fuel cells on Norway’s longest ferry route – the largest maritime project to date."
Fred. Olsen 1848 Launches Rope Mesh-Rigged Floating Solar Array
Fred. Olsen's future-tech company, Fred. Olsen 1848, has unveiled a new solution for floating solar. Its "Bolette" system moves with the waves on an interconnected rope net, preventing storm damage while generating power from sunshine.
Wave and wind loads are the biggest challenge for floating solar at sea. These factors are less of a concern for inland waterborne installations, which are already in deployment, but they are a major cost and maintenance consideration for floating solar on the open ocean.
1848's Bolette system lets the photovoltaic modules (floating solar panels) move independently in a pre-tensioned rope mesh system, distributing the wave forces across multiple mooring lines. It is designed to be inexpensive, scalable and easily built with existing technology, taking advantage of current supply chains for economies of scale. 1848 has also designed a catamaran maintenance boat that can float over rows of panels to clean them and repair them without disturbing the rest of the array. All of the mesh components are tagged for tracking and later recycling.
"We believe Bolette's elegant simplicity is a game-changer unlocking the potential of floating solar," said Sofie Olsen Jebsen, CEO Fred. Olsen 1848, in a statement Tuesday.
Final tank testing for the system is already finished and the company will install a pilot plant in Norway this summer. It hopes to scale up from 150 kW to 3 MW by 2024, and to deliver large commercial projects beginning in 2025.
The system's name is also in use in Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines' flagship MV Bolette. The name has been in the family for a long time: ex-chairman Fred. Olsen Junior’s great-great-grandmother Bolette was married to Petter Olsen, one of the original founders of the business.
Cargill and Lauritzen Order Another Pioneering Methanol-Fueled Bulker
Lauritzen ordered a third methanol-fueled bulker to operate for Cargill (Lauritzen)
Cargill, the leading agribusiness, is accelerating its efforts to improve its shipping operations with an agreement to charter a third methanol-fueled Kamsarmax bulk carrier in a partnership with Danish shipping giant J. Lauritzen. The construction order adds to two vessels ordered two months ago and is in addition to Cargill’s efforts at exploring wind-assisted propulsion for its fleet.
J. Lauritzen reports through its Lauritzen NexGen Shipping division it has placed a third construction order with Japan’s Tsuneishi Group Shipbuilding. They did not announce a delivery date but said the vessel will operate for at least seven years for Cargill.
The vessel will be an 81,200 dwt Kamsarmax bulk carrier. The vessel will be powered by dual-fuel engines capable of using green methanol as well as biodiesel. According to Lauritzen, the vessels will be capable of trading with zero carbon emissions.
While the overall orderbook for methanol-fueled or ready ships is growing rapidly, the bulker segment has lagged with the orders. DNV calculates that there are currently 101 orders for methanol vessels. They report that 81 of the vessels on order will be containerships while only three of the current orders are for bulkers able to run on methanol.
In April, Lauritzen reported it had signed a letter of intent for the construction of a minimum of two methanol dual-fuel 81,200 dwt Kamsarmax bulk carriers to be built by Tsuneishi Shipbuilding. The builder reported that both ships are scheduled to be delivered in the latter half of 2026.
Tsuneishi highlights that the newly developed Kamsarmax design will maintain the high versatility of the class while leading in the new technologies. By loading an independent large-capacity methanol fuel tank, the builder said it has ensured that the methanol-fueled bulk carrier has ample cruising distance to satisfy customer needs. They reported that the hull design is improved versus the conventional Kamsarmax design, for which they have already built over 350 ships. The methanol fuel tank is placed on the stern to maintain the large cargo hold capacity typical of the class while also ensuring the safety and ease of cargo handling and safe and efficient maintenance by the crew.
The shipyard at the end of March 2023 reported it had reached a basic agreement on an order for the world’s first methanol-fueled bulk carrier. That vessel will be owned by Mitsui & Co. and also operate for Cargill. They expect it to enter service in 2025.
In addition to the first methanol-fueled bulkers, Cargill has placed orders for bulkers outfitted for wind-assisted propulsion due to enter service this year. The company also increased its use of biofuels reporting to S&P that it had purchased more than 30,000 metric tons over the past two years while predicting it would reach 50,000 metric tons this year. Between 2017 and the end of 2022, Cargill reports it has cut nearly 1.5 million tonnes of gross carbon emissions from its fleet.
Dispatches From The Outlaw Ocean Episode 10: Freedom or Death
This episode is the tenth and final installment in a short film series from The Outlaw Ocean Project. It stems from more than a decade of reporting by Ian Urbina exploring crime on the high seas. The series chronicles a gritty cast of characters including traffickers and smugglers, pirates and mercenaries, shackled slaves and vigilante conservationists.
In international waters between the African and European coasts, an almost daily battle occurs.
Ian Urbina explains how the EU is trying to stem the flow of migrants by creating a shadow immigration system that captures migrants before they reach the high seas and sends them back to Libyan detention centers run by militia. This film, shot aboard a Médecins Sans Frontières ship, reports on the desperate race between humanitarian NGOs and the Libyan Coast Guard to reach the overflowing migrant ships in the Mediterranean. Whoever wins, determines the fate of the passengers within.
The opinions expressed herein are the author's and not necessarily those of The Maritime Executive.
China, South Korea Reach Deal to Curb China's Illegal-Fishing Fleet
China and South Korea have agreed to work together in curbing the longstanding problem of IUU (Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated) fishing in the East China Sea. The agreement was reached following a high-level meeting last week involving senior fisheries officials from the two countries.
South Korea agreed to work with China in reporting Chinese boats illegally fishing in the North Korean waters in the East China Sea. China must also notify South Korea of the results of its investigation and follow-up measures, according to the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, South Korea.
Over the years, there has been concern over the scale of Chinese fishing activity in North Korean waters in the East China Sea. According to a report by the Korean Maritime Institute, the amount of squid caught by South Korean fishers between 2014 and 2018 (a period when IUU fishing spiked in the East China Sea) declined from 163,000 tons to 46,000 tons. This could hint to degradation of marine fisheries.
China has banned its fishing boats from operating in North Korean waters, as it is party to the UN Security Council Resolution 2397 adopted on December 2017. It prohibits North Korea from selling or transferring fishing rights to foreign fishers.
Under the new cooperation agreement, South Korea has also called on China to make it mandatory for Chinese fishing vessels to install AIS (Automatic Identification System).
In addition, China and South Korea decided to expand the areas subject to their joint patrols against illegal fishing starting next year. Currently, they only carry out joint inspections against IUU fishing in the Provisional Measures Zone (PMZ), an area where fishing boats of the two neighbors can fish.
“We will continue to strengthen cooperation with the Chinese government to stamp out illegal fishing by Chinese boats and to proactively manage marine resources,” said Kim- Won bae, an official in South Korea’s Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries.
China and South Korea have a fisheries agreement dating back to 2001. It created cooperation in the use and conservation of marine resources within the EEZs of the two countries in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea. However, Korean fishermen have become discontent with the influx of Chinese fishing vessels in this region, which at times creates tension due to claims of illegal fishing.
Photos: Divers Document New Details of Two Famed Royal Navy Wrecks
A recreation of the HMS Hampshire wreck site (Royal Navy / Kari Hyttinen and Chris Rowland)
This is the wreck of a Royal Navy warship whose loss shook the Fleet, nation – and Empire – to the core a century ago.
Divers working with the Scapa Flow Museum in Orkney took advantage of the exceptional weather to re-visit two of the islands’ most famous shipwrecks – and record them with the latest underwater cameras and technology. In doing so, they show the shattered stern of cruiser HMS Hampshire as no human eye can see her.
The ship was lost in just 15 minutes when it struck a German mine off Marwick Head on Orkney’s north-west coast on June 5, 1916. Just a dozen of the 749 souls aboard survived; among the dead was the man leading the nation’s war effort – War Minister Lord Kitchener. It had been the face of the field marshal calling Britons to arms in the famous propaganda poster. In 1916, he was probably as well known across the Empire as King George V.
His death – leading a delegation to Russia in support of the war against the Central Powers on the Eastern Front – came less than a week after the Royal Navy had failed to deliver a ‘second Trafalgar’ at Jutland. Together, the two events shook public and political confidence in the Senior Service.
Over a century later, the wreck has been partially salvaged with permission from the MOD – one of the cruiser’s propellers can be seen at Scapa Flow Museum.
The museum, which celebrates the role of the Royal Navy in Orkney – the vast natural harbor of Scapa Flow was its principal base through both world wars – intends to enhance digital 3D models of the two sunken titans based on the latest videos, still images and photogrammetric data collected.
Underwater imagery courtesy of Marjo Tynkkynen
Local divers from Huskyan Charters received a diving license from the MOD - the firm regularly surveys Orkney wrecks and shares its findings with Whitehall - and carried out the latest studies “with great care and professionalism”, said Nick Hewitt, the Scapa Flow Museum’s Culture Team Manager.
“The end result will be an improved digital resource for visitors to the museum and one which helps tell the story of Orkney’s role in the world wars as the UK’s key naval base - and the immense losses borne out here," he said.
The museum, which is one of five shortlisted as the best of 2023, recently signed a deal with the National Museum of the Royal Navy to work together; the latter helped clear the way for the diving to take place over official war graves.
“The study of wrecks is important in understanding the events around their loss, which are sometimes obscure,” said the national museum’s Director General Professor Dominic Tweddle. “Orkney Islands Council does an exemplary job in protecting the many wrecks in their care and we are delighted to support them.”
Underwater imagery courtesy of Marjo Tynkkynen; Photogrammetry courtesy of Kari Hyttinen and Chris Rowland
This article appears courtesy of the Royal Navy and may be found in its original form here.
The opinions expressed herein are the author's and not necessarily those of The Maritime Executive.
Wallenius Wilhelmsen Contracts for Biofuel Supply from ExxonMobil
Wallenius Wilhelmsen will begin transition this year with biofuel from ExxonMobil (WW Ocean)
Wallenius Wilhelmsen, a Norwegian shipping giant known for its fleet of vehicle carriers, reports it has secured a supply of biofuel to help it begin the next step in its efforts toward reducing emissions and promoting eco-friendly practices. It is the latest in a series of transitional steps, including efforts at slow steaming as the company also develops plans for the world's first wind-powered RoRo vessel.
The company reports it is teaming up with ExxonMobil in a sustainable biofuel supply deal. They have contracts for the delivery of biofuel used as a drop-in blend to enhance the environmental performance of the fleet. The first biofuel delivery is scheduled for July, marking what the company calls the beginning of a transformative journey toward decarbonization. Wallenius Wilhelmsen's strategic goal calls for achieving a net-zero emissions integrated supply chain service by 2027.
“The biofuel from ExxonMobil contains 30 percent biofuel and 70 percent conventional fuels. It is the best option we have available for decarbonization of the fleet today,” says Jon Tarjei Kråkenes, head of the Orcelle Accelerator at Wallenius Wilhelmsen. “While the contracted volume represents a relatively small portion compared to our annual fuel consumption, it serves as a crucial step in our broader sustainability efforts and sets the stage for further progress."
According to the company, as the demand for eco-friendly alternatives continues to grow, partnerships like this one demonstrate the industry's dedication to fueling change. Through such initiatives, the shipping industry is reshaping its practices to reduce its carbon footprint and drive positive environmental impact.
Last week, the company highlighted additional efforts at EUKOR and WW Ocean toward greener shipping. They reported receiving an award for their participation in the Vessel Speed Reduction (VSR) program, an innovative initiative by South Korea's Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries. The VSR program encourages reduced ship speeds in designated Sea Areas to decrease particulate emissions from ocean-going vessels.
The company reports that more than 90 percent of its fleet, or a total of 162 out of 182 vessels, has participated in the VSR program at the ports of Gwangyang, Ulsan, and Incheon. They have been involved in the initiative since it started in December 2019. The result contributed to a significant 5.3 percent reduction in GHG emissions and a 5.7 percent decrease in fine dust. Wallenius Wilhelmsen reports it is exploring the possibility of reaching a 100 percent participation level in the VSR program.
Ocean Holds Giant Unknown for Climate Predictions: Tiny Zooplankton
[By Tyler Rohr, Anthony Richardson and Elizabeth Shadwick]
The ocean holds 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere and absorbs almost 30% of carbon dioxide (CO?) emissions from human activities. This means the ocean is key to understanding the global carbon cycle and thus our future climate.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) uses earth system models to project climate change. These projections inform critical political, social and technological decisions. However, if we can’t accurately model the marine carbon cycle then we cannot truly understand how Earth’s climate will respond to different emission scenarios.
In research published today, we show that zooplankton, tiny animals near the base of the ocean food chain, are likely to be the biggest source of uncertainty in how we model the marine carbon cycle. Getting their impact on the cycle right could add an extra 2 billion tonnes to current models’ assumptions about annual carbon uptake by the ocean. That’s more carbon than the entire global transportation sector emits.
The ocean (dark green) is a major carbon sink that partly offsets emissions in the global carbon budget. Global Carbon Budget 2022, Friedlingstein et al, CC BY
Marine carbon cycling is a $3 trillion thermostat
Roughly 10 billion tonnes of carbon are being released into the atmosphere each year. But the ocean quickly absorbs about 3 billion tonnes of these emissions, leaving our climate cooler and more hospitable. If we price carbon at the rate the IPCC believes is needed to limit warming to 1.5?, this adds up to over A$3 trillion worth of emission reductions accomplished naturally by the ocean every year.
However, we know the size of the ocean carbon sink has changed in the past, and even small changes can lead to big changes in the atmosphere’s temperature. Thus, we understand the ocean acts as a thermostat for our climate. But what controls the dial?
Extensive geological evidence suggests microscopic marine life could be in control. Phytoplankton photosynthesise and consume as much CO? as all land plants.
When phytoplankton die, they sink and trap much of their carbon deep in the ocean. It can remain there for centuries to millennia, locked away safely out of contact with the atmosphere.
Any changes to the strength of this biological carbon pump will be felt in the atmosphere and will change our climate. Some have even proposed enhancing this biological pump by artificially fertilising the ocean with iron to stimulate phytoplankton. It’s possible this could sequester as much as an extra 20% of our annual CO? emissions.
A diagram of the natural biological carbon pump and how iron fertilisation could artificially enhance it. Rohr et al (2019), Author provided
Right for the wrong reasons
Despite its importance for the global climate and food production, there are large gaps in our understanding of how the marine carbon cycle is expected to change. Most earth system models differ in how the cycle’s major components will respond to a changing climate. Models simply can’t agree on what will happen to:
net primary production – the carbon consumed by phytoplankton resulting in growth of marine plants at the base of the food web
secondary production – zooplankton growth, which is an indicator for fisheries, since fish eat zooplankton
export production – the biological pump of carbon transferred to the deep sea.
To diagnose what might be going wrong, we compared the marine carbon cycle in 11 IPCC earth system models. We found the largest source of uncertainty is how fast zooplankton consume their phytoplankton prey, known as grazing pressure.
Models differ hugely in their assumptions about this grazing pressure. Even if zooplankton were exposed to the exact same amount of phytoplankton, the highest assumed grazing rate would be almost 100 times as fast as the slowest rate.
This is because some models effectively assume the ocean is filled entirely with slow-grazing shrimp. Others assume it is teeming exclusively with microscopic, but rapidly grazing ciliates. In reality, neither is true.
Differences in prominent models’ estimates of the amount of zooplankton at different latitudes. Adapted from Rohr et al (2023), Author provided
Models must make up for such large differences in zooplankton grazing by making additional assumptions about how fast phytoplankton grow and how quickly zooplankton die. Together, these differences can be balanced in a way that allows most models to simulate the present-day amount of carbon consumed by phytoplankton and transferred to the deep sea.
However, that is only because we can observe what those values should be. We can then tune models until we ensure they get the right answer.
Yet, even though our best models can admirably recreate the present-day ocean, they do so for different reasons and with dramatically different assumptions about the role of zooplankton. This means these models are built with fundamentally different machinery. When used to test future emissions scenarios, they will project fundamentally different outcomes.
We cannot know which projections are correct unless we know the true role of zooplankton.
Tiny plankton with a big impact
We ran a sensitivity experiment to show how small changes in zooplankton grazing can dramatically alter marine carbon cycling. We considered two sets of experiments, one control and one in which we increased both zooplankton grazing rates and phytoplankton growth rates, such that both were tuned to the exact same total carbon consumption by phytoplankton.
This increase in how fast zooplankton can graze was only a fraction of the difference between assumed grazing rates seen across IPCC models. Despite this, we found even this small increase led to a huge difference in the percentage of carbon consumed by phytoplankton that was eventually exported to depth and transferred up the food chain.
Ocean carbon storage increased by 2 billion tonnes per year. Zooplankton carbon consumption increased by 5 billion tonnes.
From a climate perspective, that is double the maximum theoretical potential of iron fertilisation. From a fisheries perspective, that leads to a 50% increase in the size of the global zooplankton population on which many fish feed. This matters for global food supply as the ocean feeds 10% of the global population.
This work shows we must improve both our understanding and modelling of zooplankton. With limited resources and an immense ocean, we will never have enough observations to build perfect models. However, new technologies for measuring zooplankton are making it easier to make autonomous, high-resolution measurements of many important variables.
We must make a concerted effort to leverage these new technologies to better understand the role of zooplankton in the marine carbon cycle. We will then be able to reduce uncertainties about future climate states, advance our ability to assess marine-based CO? removal, and improve global fisheries projections.
Tyler Rohr is a Lecturer in Southern Ocean Biogeochemical Modelling, IMAS, University of Tasmania.
Anthony Richardson is a Professor at The University of Queensland.
Elizabeth Shadwick is the Team Leader for Oceans & Atmosphere at CSIRO.
This article appears courtesy of The Conversation and may be found in its original form here.
The opinions expressed herein are the author's and not necessarily those of The Maritime Executive.
Underwater imagery courtesy of Marjo Tynkkynen
The ocean (dark green) is a major carbon sink that partly offsets emissions in the global carbon budget. Global Carbon Budget 2022, Friedlingstein et al, CC BY
