Why do lower-class youths receive more online ads about making easy money?

A pioneering study by UPF finds that lower-class young people, especially boys, receive twice as many ads about risky financial products as their upper-class peers (15% vs. 8%), in addition to marked gender differences in online advertising

Universitat Pompeu Fabra - Barcelona

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Young people with fewer financial resources, especially boys, are the most exposed to advertising about how to make easy money. So confirms a pioneering study by Pompeu Fabra University (UPF), which has for the first time analysed how the socioeconomic level and gender of young people influences the customized advertising they receive on TikTok and Instagram. Among other data, the study reveals that the percentage of lower-class youths who receive ads about risky financial products (15%) almost doubles that of their upper-class peers (8%).

The research is based on an online survey of 1,200 young people from all over Catalonia aged 14 to 30 that evaluated the contents of advertising videos that appear spontaneously on TikTok and Instagram. On these networks, young people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds receive the most ads related to risky financial services (such as quick loans, investing in cryptocurrencies...), betting, online gaming or content promising easy income and flexible jobs with few requirements. In contrast, the only type of advertising that frequently appears for upper-class young people is related to travel and leisure.

Carolina Sáez, study author: “when we look at ads that promise to improve on the social ladder, the differences are hugely accentuated”

The results of the study were recently published in an article in the journal Communication & Society. The main author of the article is Carolina Sáez, a researcher with the Communication, Advertising and Society (CAS) research group of the UPF Department of Communication, who has conducted the research under the supervision of CAS director Mònika Jiménez.  Also collaborating in the study is Isabel Rodríguez de Dios (University of Salamanca).

Researcher Carolina Saéz explains: “when we look at ads that promise to improve on the social ladder, the differences are hugely accentuated”. The study reveals that young people with fewer resources feel they are much more likely than upper-class people to receive ads that promise easy money through digital businesses (44% vs. 4%) or seemingly accessible jobs with no prerequisites (39% vs. 4%). They also state that they are far more likely to receive content encouraging them to make investments for immediate profits, for example through cryptocurrencies (33% vs. 4%). Other promises of quick progress, such as immediate job opportunities or earning money with the mobile phone, reveal equally large differences (27% vs. 3.5%); and the same applies for quick, non-requirement credit listings (21% vs. 3%).

Advertising on social media also reinforces gender stereotypes

The differences in the advertising received according to social class are far more marked among boys than among girls. For example, young, lower-class boys receive twice as many online gambling ads as upper-class boys (22% versus 11%).  Conversely, the percentage of girls who receive such ads shows a much smaller variation between lower class (6.7%) and upper class (5.6%) subjects.

The study found that gender differences in digital advertising are highly pronounced. Girls receive more than twice as many fashion (50% vs. 13%) and beauty ads than boys (71% vs. 28%), and more than three times the amount of advertising dealing with topics related to parenting (16% vs. 5%). However, boys view twice as many ads for sports (54% vs. 26%), online gaming (46% vs. 23%), technology and electronics (32% vs. 15%) and energy drinks (10% vs. 4%); and more than three times as many automotive (16% vs. 6%) or alcohol (10% vs. 4%) adverts.

Why can networks personalize the advertising they deliver to young people according to gender or social class?

Carolina Sáez explains: “While the European data protection framework limits access by digital platforms to personal data, the large volume of information that social networks accumulate from each user allows TikTok and Instagram algorithms to deduce young people’s sensitive data concerning their economic status, educational level, origin or employment status”.

The researcher has found evidence that confirms this deducive capacity of the algorithms. During the study, data from the postal address that the young people provided when filling out the questionnaire anonymously, was crossed with data from the Índex Socioeconòmic Territorial (IST - Small Area Socioeconomic Index) of the Government of Catalonia. The IST gives weighting to different factors (levels of employment, income, education, etc.) to determine the socioeconomic level of the country’s different neighbourhoods, towns and cities. So, “the socioeconomic status of each young person yielded by crossing their address with this official index, largely coincides with the conclusions of the algorithm”, Sáez explains.

Carolina Sáez: “Algorithmic advertising (...) takes advantage of the desire of young people from disadvantaged backgrounds to thrive socially”

The researcher warns: “Algorithmic advertising commercially exploits this information and takes advantage of the desire of young people from disadvantaged backgrounds to thrive socially”. Minors and young adults are among the most vulnerable to algorithmic advertising, because usually they are not sufficiently mature to deal with it. It should be remembered that on average, young Catalans get their first mobile phone at the age of 12.

Minors also receive advertising for alcohol or gambling

Sáez adds that another “unexpected” result of the research is that minors aged 14-17 have received ads for alcohol, gambling, e-cigarettes or energy drinks through social networks, despite European regulations protecting them from this type of advertising.

For all the above, the study concludes that there is a need to toughen the regulation and control of the use of AI in online advertising targeting young people, as well as their digital literacy to provide them with greater critical capacity as network users.

Reference article:

Sáez-Linero, C., & Jiménez-Morales, M. (2025). Young, lower-class, and algorithmically persuaded: exploring personalized advertising and its impact on social inequality. Communication & Society, 38(2), 63-80. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.38.2.005

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Journal

Communication & Society

DOI

10.15581/003.38.2.005 

Method of Research

Survey

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Young, lower-class, and algorithmically persuaded: exploring personalized advertising and its impact on social inequality

 

Human gene maps are biased towards European ancestries

Lack of global representation distorts what we know about how genes influence health and disease

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Center for Genomic Regulation

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The authors of the study pictured in the facilities housing MareNostrum5, the supercomputer which was critical for processing the vast amounts of data generated by the study.

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Credit: Mario Ejarque / BSC-CNS

Human gene maps contain major blind spots because they were built largely from the DNA sequences of people with European ancestry, according to a study published today in Nature Communications. 

Researchers uncovered thousands of missing transcripts (the RNA molecules that carry a gene’s instructions) in people from populations in Africa, Asia and the Americas, possibly including products of entirely new genes that scientists have yet to discover.

Some of these transcripts also appear in genes already linked to conditions that differ between ancestries, including lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and cholesterol-related traits. 

The findings suggest that part of the reason some diseases occur more often, or behave differently, in certain populations may be because their genes produce different transcripts and potentially different proteins through processes such as splicing. These molecular variations have been effectively invisible in current gene maps, leaving potentially important insights into disease risk hidden from view. 

“Gene maps are used by scientists every day, but we’ve been leaving out huge sections of the world’s population. This study shows, for the first time, how much we’ve been missing,” says first author Pau Clavell-Revelles of the Barcelona Supercomputing Center (BSC) and Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG).

The legacy of Eurocentric genetics 

The first draft of the human genome, published in 2001, was a landmark scientific achievement, but it had limitations. The sequence alone did not reveal where the genes were, how many existed, or how a single gene could produce multiple versions of a protein through splicing, the process by which cells cut and stitch together genetic instructions. 

To solve this, gene annotation maps were built. These are detailed catalogues showing the position of every human gene and the full set of RNA transcripts produced from them. Projects such as GENCODE turned the three billion letters of the genome into something interpretable, helping scientists understand which regions drive disease and how genetic differences between people might matter. 

But these maps inherited a blind spot. Although any two humans are 99.9% genetically identical, the remaining fraction reflects our evolutionary history. Some groups have lived apart for tens of thousands of years and accumulated distinct variants shaped by environment, chance and geography. Those differences are real but not well documented. 

The human genome reference, and many of the gene annotations built on top of it, were derived mostly from individuals of European ancestry. As a result, population-specific biology from Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Americas was never fully represented in gene maps. 

That means much of what scientists know about how cells use genes is based on a narrow slice of humanity, leaving important transcripts and potential clues to disease effectively invisible. 

“Most gene sequencing so far has come from European individuals, so the reference catalogues we rely on may be missing genes or transcripts that exist only in non-European populations,” says Dr. Roderic Guigó, senior co-author of the study and researcher at the Centre for Genomic Regulation and University Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. “If a genetic variant falls in one of these missing genes, we assume it has no biological effect. In some cases, that assumption may simply be wrong,” he adds. 

Long-read RNA sequencing uncovers hidden biology 

To uncover what was missing from existing gene maps, the researchers focused on transcripts, the RNA molecules that show how genes are used inside human cells. They used long-read sequencing, a technology that can read entire RNA molecules from end to end. Earlier methods captured only tiny fragments, making transcript reconstruction extremely difficult and leading to ambiguous outcomes, one of the key reasons this question couldn’t be addressed until now. 

The team analysed blood cells from 43 people across eight populations, including Yoruba (Nigeria), Luhya (Kenya), Mbuti (Congo), Han Chinese, Indian Telugu, Peruvians in Lima, Ashkenazi Jewish and Utah Europeans. These groups are also part of the 1000 Genomes Project, meaning their DNA is already well mapped, allowing the new RNA data to be compared directly. 

The researchers identified 41,000 potential transcripts missing from the official GENCODE gene maps. Out of the transcripts coming from known protein-coding genes, 41% are predicted to encode different versions of existing proteins. In other words, the study revealed thousands of protein variants that had never been catalogued before. 

One example is the gene SUB1, involved in essential cellular processes such as DNA repair. The researchers found that individuals of Peruvian ancestry produce a different transcript of SUB1. This altered RNA molecule changes the resulting protein made, yet it was absent from all existing gene annotations. 

When the team grouped the data by ancestry, they found a clear pattern where non-European samples contained far more previously unseen transcripts than European ones. In total, the study found 2,267 population-specific transcripts, RNA molecules present in one population but absent from all others. For European groups, most of these were already known. For non-European groups, most were entirely new. 

773 of the newly identified transcripts appear to come from previously unrecognised gene loci, suggesting they may be the products of gene regions that scientists did not know existed. 

The team also tested whether using each person’s own DNA sequence as the reference could uncover even more missing transcripts. They found switching from the standard reference genome to personalised ones revealed hundreds of additional transcripts per individual, with the biggest gains in people of African ancestry.  

While confirming existing biases in gene maps, this part of the study also shows how relying on a single, universal reference genome can mask biologically meaningful variation in how people’s genes are used. 

Why the missing transcripts matter 

To understand why these missing transcripts matter, the researchers next looked at something called allele-specific transcript usage. Each person carries two copies of most genes, one from each parent. Sometimes, these two copies produce different transcripts, and these differences can influence how the gene works. 

However, these effects can only be detected if all the transcripts which actually exist are catalogued in the gene maps. If important transcripts are missing, the effects are invisible. 

By adding the thousands of newly discovered transcripts to existing gene maps, the team were able to detect many more genetic effects that influence how genes behave, especially in people of non-European ancestry. 

“We found that many novel ancestry-biased transcripts occur in genes already associated with autoimmune diseases, asthma and metabolic traits,” says Dr. Marta Melé, senior co-author of the study and Group Leader at the BSC. 

Dr. Melé explains that this doesn’t mean the transcripts themselves cause the differences in disease but rather help scientists see genetic signals that were previously hidden. Without these transcripts in the reference maps, researchers would miss key information about why certain diseases are more common, or act differently, in some groups than others. 

Towards a human ‘pantranscriptome’ 

The researchers emphasise their work is only a first step which has important limitations. The study looked at just one cell type taken from one tissue, and from only 43 individuals. Many parts of the world are not represented at all and none of the body’s most complex organs were examined. 

Yet despite the narrow window of human biology explored, the team still found tens of thousands of transcripts that had slipped through the cracks of official gene maps. For Dr. Fairlie Reese, the small scope of the study and the size of what it uncovered is a striking outcome. “We firmly believe that any findings that we made here are really just the tip of the iceberg,” says Dr. Reese, postdoctoral researcher at the BSC. 

The authors of the study call for a rethink in how we build maps of human biology that truly reflect humanity. In recent years, large international efforts such as the Human Pangenome Project have begun to expand the reference genome, capturing far more of the DNA diversity found around the world.  

However, DNA is only the instruction manual. To understand how those instructions are used the research community also need a human pantranscriptome: the complete catalogue of all RNA molecules used across all tissues, all life stages and all populations. 

“The pangenome tells us about DNA diversity, essentially, it’s a book of instructions. The pantranscriptome tells us which words are important in each cell of our body. Both are essential for fully understanding human diversity,” says Dr. Melé. 

Building such a resource is a mammoth task. The current study alone produced more than 10 terabytes of data and 800 million full-length RNA sequences, one of the largest datasets of its kind that requried advanced machine-learning tools and the power of the BSC’s MareNostrum 5 supercomputer to process. Scaling this up to hundreds of tissues and thousands of individuals would demand computational capacities and global coordination on an entirely different scale. 

But the researchers say the ambition is worth it. “We hope our study serves as a foundation and an invitation for the global scientific community to contribute data, methods, and diverse populations. Only through a collective effort will we achieve a truly complete and inclusive map of human biology, which is essential for fair and accurate genomic medicine,” concludes Dr. Melé. 

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Journal

Nature Communications

DOI

10.1038/s41467-025-66096-x 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Cells

Article Publication Date

3-Dec-2025

 

Turning mine waste into clean water:

New study shows promise for acid mine drainage recycling

Heriot-Watt University

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Polluted water 

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Credit: Professor Vhahangwele Masindi, University of South Africa

Pics here, please credit Vhahangwele Masindi: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/15dGpzdxUZeqx18j0_mcxeD9VF_61vQPY?usp=sharing

Scientists have developed a breakthrough method to convert hazardous acid mine drainage into a valuable resource for drinking water treatment, offering hope for communities living near polluted mining areas.

Acid mine drainage (AMD), a toxic byproduct of mining, is notorious for contaminating rivers and groundwater with high concentrations of metals such as iron, aluminium, and manganese. 

It can make water undrinkable and destroy entire ecosystems, as well as destroy infrastructure like bridges and pipelines. 

But researchers in South Africa and Scotland have found a way to extract ferric iron (Fe(III)) from AMD and convert it into ferric chloride, a widely used water treatment chemical.

The research was presented at the International Mine Water Association (IMWA) 2025 conference. 

Turning a major hazard into an economic opportunity 

In laboratory tests, the AMD-derived ferric chloride achieved removal rates of over 99% for pollutants such as aluminium, iron and chromium from river water. 

The treated water met South Africa’s drinking water standards (under SANAS/ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation).

Professor Vhahangwele Masindi from the University of South Africa said the project could help transform a major environmental hazard into an economic opportunity.

“Active and derelict coal and gold mines in South Africa discharge close to 400 million litres of acid mine drainage per day, and this demonstrates the viability of using this wastewater stream as a secondary mine for valuable minerals. 

“This approach supports the circular economy by turning waste into a product with real value.” 

“It also helps reduce the environmental footprint of mining operations.”

The study involved collecting mine water from an active coal mine in Mpumalanga, South Africa. 

The team used magnesium oxide nanoparticles, produced from the calcination of locally available cryptocrystalline magnesite, to precipitate iron from the AMD before reacting it with hydrochloric acid to produce ferric chloride.

Dr Spyros Foteinis from Heriot-Watt University’s Research Centre for Carbon Solutions in Edinburgh collaborated on the research and said the findings show how mining regions around the world could benefit.

“We’re demonstrating that even highly contaminated mine water can be cleaned up. 

“This could be a low-energy and low-carbon practical solution to a problem that blights communities around the world and has lasting health, ecological and economic impact. 

“The scaling up of this sustainable technology can underpin global efforts to manage industrial waste more sustainably and advance the global effort for clean water and sanitation for all.”

The team’s next steps are to pilot the technology and its use in rural and peri-urban communities in South Africa, and further afield, that struggle with water scarcity pressures. 

The scientists say their method could be applied at an industrial scale, particularly in countries grappling with legacy mining pollution.

Mamile Belina Mahlohla, from the University of South Africa and Magalies Water, said: “Climate change is exacerbating water scarcity pressures and creates new challenges that the water sector needs to address sustainably. 

“This technology can be part of a portfolio approach. We’re also working on different methods of recovering nutrients and clean water from municipal wastewater.”

ENDS

Media contact: Sarah McDaid (sarah@mcdaidpr.co.uk/ 07866789688) 

 

Notes to editors 

 

About acid mine drainage 

 

United States Environmental Protection Agency factsheet: https://www.epa.gov/nps/abandoned-mine-drainage

 

Oxford University article in the Conversation: 

Acid drainage: the global environmental crisis you’ve never heard of 

https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/article/acid-drainage-global-environmental-crisis-youve-never-heard

 

About acid mine drainage impact in South Africa (article from 2015) 

https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2015/dec/25/south-africa-acid-rivers-pollution-in-pictures

 

British Geological Survey: Case study, acid mine drainage South Africa 

https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Case_Study_Acid_Mine_Drainage_South_Africa#:~:text=When%20dewatering%20stopped%2C%20groundwater%20levels,rocks%2C%20including%20zinc%20and%20uranium.