Virtual companions, real responsibility: Researchers call for clear regulations on AI tools used for mental health interactions
Artificial Intelligence (AI) can converse, mirror emotions, and simulate human engagement. Publicly available large language models (LLMs) – often used as personalized chatbots or AI characters – are increasingly involved in mental health-related interactions. While these tools offer new possibilities, they also pose significant risks, especially for vulnerable users. Researchers from Else Kröner Fresenius Center (EKFZ) for Digital Health at TUD Dresden University of Technology and the University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus have therefore published two articles calling for stronger regulatory oversight. Their publication “AI characters are dangerous without legal guardrails” in Nature Human Behaviour outlines the urgent need for clear regulations for AI characters. A second article in npj Digital Medicine highlights dangers if chatbots offer therapy-like guidance without medical approval, and argues for their regulation as medical devices.
General-purpose large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT or Gemini are not designed as specific AI characters or therapeutic tools. Yet simple prompts or specific settings can turn them into highly personalized, humanlike chatbots. Interaction with AI characters can negatively affect young people and individuals with mental health challenges. Users may form strong emotional bonds with these systems, but AI characters remain largely unregulated in both the EU and the United States. Importantly, they differ from clinical therapeutic chatbots, which are explicitly developed, tested, and approved for medical use.
“AI characters are currently slipping through the gaps in existing product safety regulations,” explains Mindy Nunez Duffourc, Assistant Professor of Private Law at Maastricht University and co-author of the publication. “They are often not classified as products and therefore escape safety checks. And even where they are newly regulated as products, clear standards and effective oversight are still lacking.”
Background: Digital interaction, real responsibility
Recent international reports have linked intensive personal interactions with AI chatbots to mental health crises. The researchers argue that systems imitating human behavior must meet appropriate safety requirements and operate within defined legal frameworks. At present, however, AI characters largely escape regulatory oversight before entering the market.
In a second publication in npj Digital Medicine titled “If a therapy bot walks like a duck and talks like a duck then it is a medically regulated duck,” the team further outlines the risks of unregulated mental health interactions with LLMs. The authors show that some AI chatbots provide therapy-like guidance, or even impersonate licensed clinicians, without any regulatory approval. Hence, the researchers argue that LLMs providing therapy-like functions should be regulated as medical devices, with clear safety standards, transparent system behavior, and continuous monitoring.
“AI characters are already part of everyday life for many people. Often these chatbots offer doctor or therapist-like advice. We must ensure that AI-based software is safe. It should support and help – not harm. To achieve this, we need clear technical, legal, and ethical rules,” says Stephen Gilbert, Professor of Medical Device Regulatory Science at the EKFZ for Digital Health, TUD Dresden University of Technology.
Proposed solution: “Guardian Angel AI” as a safeguard
The research team emphasizes that the transparency requirement of the European AI Act – simply informing users that they are interacting with AI – is not enough to protect vulnerable groups. They call for enforceable safety and monitoring standards, supported by voluntary guidelines to help developers with implementing safe design practices.
As solution they propose linking future AI applications with persistent chat memory to a so-called “Guardian Angel” or “Good Samaritan AI” – an independent, supportive AI instance to protect the user and intervene when necessary. Such an AI agent could detect potential risks at an early stage and take preventive action, for example by alerting users to support resources or issuing warnings about dangerous conversation patterns.
Recommendations for safe interaction with AI
In addition to implementing such safeguards, the researchers recommend robust age verification, age-specific protections, and mandatory risk assessments before market entry.
“As clinicians, we see how language shapes human experience and mental health,” says Falk Gerrik Verhees, psychiatrist at Dresden University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus. “AI characters use the same language to simulate trust and connection – and that makes regulation essential. We need to ensure that these technologies are safe and protect users’ mental well-being rather than put it at risk,” he adds.
The researchers argue that clear, actionable standards are needed for mental health-related use cases. They recommend that LLMs clearly state that they are not an approved mental health medical tool. Chatbots should refrain from impersonating therapists, and limit themselves to basic, non-medical information. They should be able to recognize when professional support is needed and guide users toward appropriate resources. Effectiveness and application of these criteria could be ensured through simple open access tools to test chatbots for safety on an ongoing basis.
“Our proposed guardrails are essential to ensure that general-purpose AI can be used safely and in a helpful and beneficial manner,” concludes Max Ostermann, researcher in the Medical Device Regulatory Science team of Prof. Gilbert and first author of the publication in npj Digital Medicine.
Important note
In times of a personal crisis please seek help at a local crisis service, contact your general practitioner, a psychiatrist/psychotherapist or in urgent cases go to the hospital. In Germany you can call 116 123 (in German) or find offers in your language online at https://www.telefonseelsorge.de/internationale-hilfe.
Publications
Mindy Nunez Duffourc, F. Gerrik Verhees, Stephen Gilbert: AI characters are dangerous without legal guardrails; Nature Human Behaviour, 2025.
doi: 10.1038/s41562-025-02375-3. URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02375-3
Max Ostermann, Oscar Freyer, F. Gerrik Verhees, Jakob Nikolas Kather, Stephen Gilbert: If a therapy bot walks like a duck and talks like a duck then it is a medically regulated duck; npj Digital Medicine, 2025.
doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-02175-z. URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-02175-z
Else Kröner Fresenius Center (EKFZ) for Digital Health
The EKFZ for Digital Health at TU Dresden and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus Dresden was established in September 2019. It receives funding of around 40 million euros from the Else Kröner Fresenius Foundation for a period of ten years. The center focuses its research activities on innovative, medical and digital technologies at the direct interface with patients. The aim here is to fully exploit the potential of digitalization in medicine to significantly and sustainably improve healthcare, medical research and clinical practice.
Journal
Nature Human Behaviour
Subject of Research
People
Article Title
AI characters are dangerous without legal guardrails
Article Publication Date
5-Dec-2025
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