Friday, September 26, 2025

Meta-analysis: COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy is safe and beneficial for mother and infant

Vaccination is associated with better neonatal outcomes without added maternal risk, according to research presented during the American Academy of Pediatrics 2025 National Conference & Exhibition

American Academy of Pediatrics

DENVER — An analysis of data from over 1.2 million pregnant individuals found that those who received a COVID-19 vaccination had a 58% lower risk of being infected with the virus, as well as a lower risk of experiencing a stillbirth or preterm birth, according to research presented during the American Academy of Pediatrics 2025 National Conference & Exhibition at the Colorado Convention Center from Sept. 26-30.

For the study, “Safety and Efficacy of Maternal COVID-19 Vaccination During Pregnancy: Umbrella Review & Meta-Analyses,” the author conducted a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase from Jan. 1, 2021, to Sep. 13, 2023. She included 23 meta-analyses inclusive of over 200 studies and 1,250,000 pregnant individuals with documented COVID-19 vaccination.

“We found that the COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy offers significant protections to newborns and mothers,” said Nikan Zargarzadeh, study author and Harvard University research fellow. “This information can help support informed decision-making for pregnant individuals and their care teams.”

The review found those who received a COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy had an 8% lower risk of preterm birth before 37 weeks and a 34% lower risk of preterm birth before 28 weeks. Vaccination was also associated with an 25% lower risk of stillbirth and an 9% lower risk of neonatal intensive care admission, as well as a 17% lower risk of congenital anomalies, according to the study abstract. There were no increased risks observed for maternal hospitalization, intensive care admission, gestational diabetes, hypertension, or pre-eclampsia.

The authors did not receive financial support for this research.

Study author Nikan Zargarzadeh is scheduled to present her research, which is below, on Saturday, Sept. 27, 2025, 3:45 p.m. – 3:55 p.m. in the Colorado Convention Center, Mile High Ballroom 2A-3A.

In addition, Ms. Zargarzadeh will be among highlighted abstract authors who will give a brief presentation and be available for interviews during a press conference from noon-1:30 pm Saturday, Sept. 27, in the National Conference Press Room, CCC 705/707. During the meeting, you may reach AAP media relations staff at 303-228-8338.

Please note: only the abstract is being presented at the meeting. In some cases, the researcher may have more data available to share with media, or may be preparing a longer article for submission to a journal.

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The American Academy of Pediatrics is an organization of 67,000 primary care pediatricians, pediatric medical subspecialists and pediatric surgical specialists dedicated to the health, safety and well-being of infants, children, adolescents and young adults. For more information, visit www.aap.org. Reporters can access the meeting program and other relevant meeting information through the AAP meeting website at http://www.aapexperience.org/

Program Name: 2025 Call for Abstracts

Submission Type: Section on Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine

Abstract Title: Safety and Efficacy of Maternal COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy: Umbrella review & meta-analyses

Nikan Zargarzadeh

Boston, MA, United States

The safety & efficacy of COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy are critical not only for maternal and fetal health, but also for informing public health policy and preparedness for future pandemics. To date, no comprehensive umbrella review has synthesized meta-analysis evidence on both the safety and efficacy of COVID-19 vaccination in this population. This study aims to address this significant knowledge gap.

We conducted a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase from 01/01/2021 to 09/13/2023. We included 23 meta-analyses inclusive of over 200 studies and 1,250,000 pregnant individuals with documented COVID-19 vaccination. Risk Ratios (RRs) and pooled proportions were calculated using R, employing random-effects models and Egger’s test for publication bias (PROSPERO registration: CRD42024519174).

COVID vaccination during pregnancy reduced maternal COVID-19 infection rates (Risk Ratio [RR] 0.41, 95% CI 0.30-0.57), stillbirth (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.58-0.98), PTB ≤37 weeks (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.86-0.99). No significant risk differences were observed among other outcomes, except for a marginal increased risk of cesarean delivery (RR 1.07, 95% CI 1.01-1.12).

Through this umbrella review of comprehensive meta-analyses, including data from over 1.2 million pregnant individuals, we demonstrate significant benefits of COVID-19 vaccination with high confidence and no associated increase in risk. These quantifiable benefits can support informed shared decision-making and enhance public health communication strategies during this and future pandemics.

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Meta-Analysis: COVID-19 Vaccination During Pregnancy is Safe and Beneficial for Mother and Infant

Article Publication Date

26-Sep-2025

COVID pandemic disrupted sex ed for middle school (GR 6-9) students

Students expressed decreased openness and engagement with the topic post-pandemic, according to new research

American Academy of Pediatrics

DENVER — The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in students being less engaged and open about sexual education when compared with other middle school classes, according to research presented during the American Academy of Pediatrics 2025 National Conference & Exhibition at the Colorado Convention Center from Sept. 26-30.

Researchers taught two different groups of 7th grade students about their sexual health over an 8-lesson course – once during the 2018-2019 school year and again in the 2023-2024 school year. After the courses were completed, each group of students was given a questionnaire on what they learned and their attitudes about sexual health topics. Despite both groups showing interest in the topic, the 2023-2024 group reported more negative feelings and beliefs regarding sexual education than their peers in the 2018-2019 group.

Parker Haddock, research author and medical student with the Warren Alpert Medical School at Brown University, said the findings reinforce known trends regarding student engagement post-pandemic.

"Middle schoolers are learning the facts about sexual health, but that's only half of the battle. If we want students to make healthy choices, we need to teach sexual health in ways that foster not just knowledge, but belief and confidence, and result in real-world application,” Haddock said.

Researchers state this data further solidifies the need for increased urgency in restoring the emotional and social learning kids get in the classroom, especially for a topic that requires change in existing beliefs to help students make safe, informed choices.

“Sexual health curriculum needs to evolve so it can meet students where they are at and give them the tools they will need,” Haddock said.

The authors received financial support for this research from the Family Medicine Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) Funding for Student Projects in Care of Underserved Patients and Populations, RI Area Health Education Center (AHEC) Grant, Peterson Educational Enhancement Fund, and The Warren Alpert Medical School Student Senate Funding Board.

Study author Parker Haddock is scheduled to present the research, which is below, from 3:35 p.m. to 4:45 p.m. MDT on Sunday, Sept. 28, at the Council on School Health in the Hyatt Regency, Capitol Ballroom 1-2. To request an interview with the authors, contact Jonathan Garris at jonathan_garris@brown.edu.

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Program Name: 2025 Call for Abstracts

Submission Type: Council on School Health

Abstract Title: Sex Ed by Brown Med: The Impact of COVID-19 on Middle Schoolers’ Sexual Health Education

Parker Haddock

Providence, RI, United States

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted education systems and learning, leading to unprecedented challenges for both students and educators. Among these challenges, a notable decline in students’ attitudes and beliefs towards school-related topics has emerged as a critical area of concern, particularly for middle school students navigating crucial and foundational subjects such as sexual education. Studies have shown that students’ beliefs about sexual health topics were negatively impacted by the pandemic, leading to reduced openness and engagement with the material, likely due to interruptions in educational routine and access to supportive resources. Negative beliefs about sexual health topics can have profound implications, as sexual education has been shown not only to provide students with the ability to make informed and safe decisions about relationships, sexual activity and reproductive health, but to provide significant health benefits in terms of reducing the risk of adolescent pregnancy, HIV and sexually transmitted infections. The objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of a sexual health education curriculum taught by medical student volunteers on seventh graders’ knowledge and beliefs about sexual health before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim is to provide valuable insight into the broader impact of the pandemic on students’ perceptions of essential learning.

Seventh-grade students participated in an eight-lesson sexual education program during the 2018-2019 and 2023-2024 school years. Pre- and post-program questionnaires were administered to students to assess knowledge across five domains (Communication and Consent, Sexual Health Decision Making & Safe Sex Practices, Healthy Relationships, Puberty and Reproductive Health and Gender Identity & Sexual Orientation) as well as students’ beliefs on these topics (Table 1).

Across both cohorts, students demonstrated a statistically significant increase in overall sexual health knowledge. Before the pandemic (2018-2019), participation in the program also led to significantly improved beliefs around sexual health practices. However, post-pandemic (2023-2024), students’ beliefs did not show change following the curriculum (Table 2).

These findings align with existing literature highlighting post-pandemic shifts in student engagement and learning. While students continue to effectively acquire factual knowledge from the sexual education curriculum, the curriculum’s diminished influence on beliefs emphasizes the challenges of fostering behavioral change in the current educational climate. It is critical to address this gap: belief shifts are essential for translating knowledge into informed decision making. The results suggest the need for curriculum enhancements to ensure that our program not only informs but also empowers students to apply knowledge to real-life decision making.

Table 1. Questionnaire and Scoring Notes.

This table compiles the questions shared between the 2018-2019 and 2023-2024 pre- and post-program assessments with scoring notes.

Subject of Research

People

Article Publication Date

26-Sep-2025

Period prepared: Research shows education helps teens feel informed, confident

New research presented during the American Academy of Pediatrics 2025 National Conference & Exhibition shows that teens are eager to learn more about their bodies and what to expect before menstruation begins

American Academy of Pediatrics

DENVER — Practical information on managing periods can help better prepare adolescents for the changes taking place in their bodies during menstruation, according to research presented during the 2025 American Academy of Pediatrics National Conference & Exhibition at the Colorado Convention Center Sept. 26-30.

Research author Hannah Chiu, medical student at the Tulane University School of Medicine, said that lack of practical knowledge about menstruation can negatively impact teens’ body image and reinforce stigma around the topic.

“Most of us have picked up scraps of information along the way: how to choose a period product, insert a tampon, or track your cycle— usually through trial and error. But imagine a generation of young menstruators who felt informed instead of afraid,” Chiu said.

Chiu noted that, in Louisiana, the state does not mandate sexual education in schools. In 2020, only 11% of middle school students and 24% of high school students received comprehensive sexual education, which does not explicitly cover menstruation.

This educational gap led to the creation of Period Prepared, an organization that provides hands-on menstruation curriculum for students in grades 3-12 and covers topics such as menstrual hygiene, stigma, and cycle monitoring.

The program focuses on hands-on activities that supplement what participants are learning and discussing. These activities included creating DIY heating pads to alleviate period cramps and role-playing activities on how to ask for help with period-related issues.

Initial reactions to the program have been positive from educators, parents and, most importantly, those adolescents participating, according to the study abstract. Small group sessions of similar-aged participants proved the most effective at creating engaging conversations. Even those who already had some knowledge on the topic expressed the need for dedicated classroom time to explore the topic.

“Interestingly, the younger participants aged 8 to 10 years old were particularly enthusiastic about more advanced topics. This further reinforces the idea that being well prepared fosters confidence, something that could greatly benefit young people as they begin their menstruation journey,” Chiu said.

The authors did not receive financial support for this research.

Study author Hannah Chiu is scheduled to present her research, which is below, from 3:25 p.m. to 4:45 p.m. MDT on Sunday, Sept. 28, 2025, in the Hyatt Regency, Capitol Ballroom 1-2. To request an interview with the authors, contact her at hchiu1@tulane.edu.

In addition, Ms. Chiu will be among highlighted abstract authors who will give a brief presentation and be available for interviews during a press conference from noon-1:30 p.m. Saturday, Sept. 27, in the National Conference Press Room, CCC 705/707. During the meeting, you may reach AAP media relations staff at 303-228-8338.

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Program Name: 2025 Call for Abstracts

Submission Type: Council on School Health

Abstract Title: Menstruation Education Centered Around Hands-On Skills

Hannah Chiu

United States

The responsibility of teaching menstruation skills is not clearly defined between parents and educators. Parents may rely on personal experiences, which may be limited to their cultural upbringing, single-parent status, or discomfort with the topic. Meanwhile, educators often focus on anatomy and physiology, delivering lessons that students may find disengaging and impractical. Further, Louisiana does not mandate sexual education in schools. In 2020, only 11% of middle school students and 24% of high school students received comprehensive sexual education, which does not explicitly cover menstruation. Lack of period preparedness can negatively impact body image, cause distress and confusion, and reinforce stigmatization.

Period Prepared is an organization dedicated to providing hands-on menstruation curriculum for students in grades 3-12. The curriculum was developed utilizing design-thinking principles through participation in a social innovation and entrepreneurship fellowship. Stakeholder interviews targeted menstruators, teachers, parents, and physicians. Workshop topics are informed by community surveys and focus groups. Key topics include period hygiene, menstrual hygiene, and recognizing what is clinically expected. Additional niche topics like playing sports while menstruating and pelvic floor therapy are also included. Skill-building activities are integral to each lesson-plan allowing students to implement their newfound knowledge immediately (Figure 1). Medical student volunteers teach sessions in the classroom. Additionally, parents and educators can facilitate workshops independently by accessing the Period Prepared curriculum online. Medical student volunteers are also available to build educators’ capacity by teaching them how to lead workshops and acting as a resource for menstrual health.

Preliminary evidence suggests that this program is well-received by educators, parents, and youth. Students remain actively engaged and ask questions openly despite initial expectations that they may shy away due to the taboo nature of menstruation. Facilitators found that small group sessions (< 10 students) with similar-aged menstruators were most effective in fostering conversations compared to larger groups that spanned greater than four grade levels. Notably, pre-menstruators (ages 8-10) showed enthusiasm for more advanced topics, reinforcing the idea that preparedness fosters confidence. While using an anonymous system to ask questions on index cards, students demonstrated that even with prior knowledge, they valued dedicated time to address their unanswered questions in a judgement-free setting. Likewise, parents and teachers responded positively to the program and specifically appreciated the use of permission slips and online workshop material demonstrations.

Small-group learning, engaging activities, and peer support converge through Period Prepared to create an empowering environment for menstruators to learn about their health. This program addresses a critical health need in our community. Ongoing efforts for growth and sustainability include forming long-term partnerships with school districts to formally integrate the curriculum and providing additional resources to help teachers and parents lead sessions independently.

Figure 1: Workshop Topics and Hands-On Activities

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Period Prepared: Research Shows Education Helps Teens Feel Informed, Confident

Article Publication Date

26-Sep-2025

Expecting mothers increasingly turn to at-home births: New research

Out-of-hospital births skyrocketed post-COVID pandemic

American Academy of Pediatrics

DENVER — More pregnant people are turning away from hospital births and instead choosing their homes, according to research presented during the American Academy of Pediatrics 2025 National Conference & Exhibition at the Colorado Convention Center Sept. 26-30.

Cincinnati Children’s researchers tracked out-of-hospital births and found that the numbers doubled in the region from April 1, 2020 - December 31, 2023, compared to births from January 1, 2018 - February 29, 2020. The trend was seen most in young, highly educated mothers who were also more likely to have higher body mass index and fewer prenatal visits, according to a study abstract, “The Changing Landscape of Planned Out-of-Hospital Births.”

Research author with Cincinnati Children’s Emily Miller MD, MS, FAAP, said the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) advises against planned home births for higher-risk pregnancies. A myriad of factors contribute to a high-risk pregnancy, including maternal age, chronic illness, previous birthing issues like preterm birth, and being pregnant with multiples, she said.

“As intensive care doctors who care for critically ill infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), it is important to understand the changing landscape of where, when and how pregnant people are delivering their babies and the associated impact on infant health outcomes,” Miller said.

As rural hospitals and clinics face potential closures due to federal Medicaid cuts, Miller said it is crucial that expectant mothers consider all circumstances when deciding where they ultimately want to give birth.

“As more parents choose to deliver their infants outside of a hospital, it is important to understand associated infant health outcomes, including the risk of adverse events such as birth injury, need for respiratory support, and death, so families can weigh the potential benefits and risks, consider their individual circumstances, and ensure access to appropriate medical care if needed,” Miller stated.

The authors received financial support for this research from Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Perinatal Institute, Division of Neonatology.

Study author Hadi Berbari, MD, is scheduled to present the research, which is below, from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. on Friday, Sept. 26, in the Colorado Convention Center, Four Seasons Ballroom 1 & 2. To request an interview with the authors, write to Hadi.Berbari@cchmc.org.

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Program Name: 2025 Call for Abstracts

Submission Type: Section on Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine

Abstract Title: The Changing Landscape of Planned Out-of-Hospital Births

Dr. Hadi Berbari, Dr. Shelley Ehrlich, Chunyan Liu, Dr. Morgan Hill , Dr. Emily Miller

Cinncinati, OH, United States

Planned out-of-hospital (OOH) births are increasing within the United States, with the COVID-19 pandemic potentiating an already upward trend. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends strict selection criteria for OOH births: absence of preexisting maternal disease, cephalic presentation, and term singleton gestation. Infants born to low-risk women choosing OOH births more frequently experience adverse neonatal events. To date, no study has examined changes in the maternal risk profile and neonatal outcomes for planned OOH births since declaration of the pandemic. We hypothesized maternal risk factors and rates of adverse neonatal outcomes for planned OOH births have increased since declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic. Study objectives are to describe the sociodemographic profiles and maternal risk factors among those with planned OOH births pre/post the COVID-19 pandemic and compare neonatal outcomes pre/post the COVID-19 pandemic.

This retrospective cohort study includes pregnant individuals and their neonates with planned OOH births in Cincinnati and surrounding areas between January 1, 2018 - February 29, 2020 (pre-pandemic), and April 1, 2020 - December 31, 2023 (post-pandemic). We extracted variables of interest from Ohio Department of Health birth certificate and vital statistics files. Maternal characteristics and potential risk factors for adverse neonatal outcomes are reported using descriptive statistics. Comparisons between groups are evaluated using Wilcoxon rank sum test for continuous variables and Chi-square or Fisher’s exact test for categorical variables

We identified 1601 planned OOH births; 1234 occurred during the post-pandemic era. The incidence of planned OOH births doubled from 1.5% pre-pandemic to 3.0% post-pandemic. As described in Table 1, women with post-pandemic OOH births had statistically significant (p< 0.05) increases in Black or Asian race, Hispanic ethnicity, obese/overweight, and completion of a high school, collegiate, or graduate degree. Statistically significant decreases were noted in mean age, white race, number of prenatal visits, and underweight persons. Neonatal characteristics, rates of adverse events, and completion of routine screenings were largely unchanged between cohorts (Table 2). Ocular prophylaxis agent and use differed between groups; more families opted against prophylaxis in the post-pandemic group. Analysis is ongoing to compare neonatal outcomes of OOH births to a matched in-hospital birth group

Planned OOH births doubled post COVID-19 pandemic, reaching 3.0% of births in our study region by 2023. Sociodemographic profiles and maternal risk factors varied between study groups; notably, younger and more educated mothers are choosing OOH births. While maternal characteristics, such as BMI category, in the post-pandemic cohort may confer increased neonatal risk, it is reassuring that despite the significant increase in OOH births, neonatal characteristics and outcomes have remained similar with low absolute rates of adverse events. Analysis is ongoing to assess the impact of an evolving risk profile on neonatal outcomes compared to planned in-hospital births.

Table 1: Maternal Characteristics of the OOH Cohort

Table 1 describes changes in maternal sociodemographic and risk profile between areas between January 1, 2018 - February 29, 2020 (pre-pandemic), and April 1, 2020 - December 31, 2023 (post-pandemic). Mothers who delivered during March of 2020 were excluded from this analysis as this was a transitional month during the pandemic.

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Expecting Mothers Increasingly Turn to At-Home Births: New Research

Article Publication Date

26-Sep-2025

PREHISTORIC ALCHEMY

How a 3000-year-old copper smelting site could be key to understanding the origins of iron

Research from Cranfield University sheds new light onto the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, showing how experimentation with iron-rich rocks by copper smelters may have sparked the invention of iron.

Cranfield University

Dr Erb-Satullo analysing electron microscope images — image:
A scanning electron microscope was used to analyse the chemistry, mineralogy, and microstructure of the samples.
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Credit: Dr Nathaniel Erb-Satullo

The work reanalysed metallurgical remains from a site in southern Georgia: a 3000-year-old smelting workshop called Kvemo Bolnisi. During the original analysis in the 1950s, piles of hematite (an iron oxide mineral) and slag (a waste product of the metal production) were found in the workshop. Finding those iron oxides, the original excavators thought the workshop was an early iron smelting site.

However, new research shows that those assumptions were wrong. Rather than iron, workers at Kvemo Bolnisi were smelting copper using iron oxide as a flux - a substance added into the furnace to increase the resulting copper yield.

These discoveries give weight to a long-discussed theory that iron was invented by copper smelters. This evidence shows that ancient copper metalworkers experimented with iron-bearing materials in a metallurgical furnace, which was a crucial step towards iron smelting.

The importance of iron

While the Iron Age marked the beginnings of widespread iron production, the metal itself wasn’t a new discovery. Iron artefacts have been found dating from the Bronze Age, most famously an iron dagger with a gold and rock crystal hilt from the tomb of Egyptian king Tutankhamun. But the earliest iron objects were forged from naturally occurring metallic iron found in meteorites, not extracted from iron ore through smelting. That rarity meant iron was, at that point in history, more valuable than gold.

The development of extractive iron metallurgy changed all this. Iron is one of the most abundant elements on Earth, even though naturally occurring iron metal is very rare. The ability to extract iron from iron ore and work it into useful materials such as tools or weapons is one of the defining technological transformations in human history. The transition into the Iron Age was far from instantaneous, but it gave rise to the iron-wielding armies of Assyria and Rome and later the railroads and steel-frame buildings of the industrial revolution.

Dr Nathaniel Erb-Satullo, Visiting Fellow in Archaeological Science at Cranfield University, said: “Iron is the world’s quintessential industrial metal, but the lack of written records, iron’s tendency to rust, and a lack of research on iron production sites has made the search for its origins challenging.

“That’s what makes this site at Kvemo Bolnisi so exciting. It’s evidence of intentional use of iron in the copper smelting process. That shows that these metalworkers understood iron oxide - the geological compounds that would eventually be used as ore for iron smelting - as a separate material and experimented with its properties within the furnace. Its use here suggests that this kind of experimentation by copper-workers was crucial to development of iron metallurgy.

“There’s a beautiful symmetry in this kind of research, in that we can use the techniques of modern geology and materials science to get into the minds of ancient materials scientists. And we can do all this through the analysis of slag—a mundane waste material that looks like lumps of funny-looking rock.”

The research was supported by grants from the British Institute of Ankara, the Gerda Henkel Foundation, and the American Research Institute of the South Causcasus. The research paper Iron in copper metallurgy at the dawn of the Iron Age: Insights on iron invention from a mining and smelting site in the Caucasus is published in the Journal of Archaeological Science. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2025.106338

The site, shown here, was originally excavated during the Soviet period and was relocated using hand draw maps from a 1964 book.

Credit

Dr Nathaniel Erb-Satullo

Sparkly hematite mineral was used as a flux by copper smelters. Its distinctive appearance may have helped to attract attention from ancient miners and prospectors.

Credit

Dr Nathaniel Erb-Satullo

Copper smelters at the site used copper ores that lacked iron. Adding the iron oxide hematite to the furnace helped the copper metal to separate more easily from the impurities in the ore.

Credit

Dr Nathaniel Erb-Satullo

Journal

Journal of Archaeological Science

DOI

10.1016/j.jas.2025.106338

Method of Research

Case study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Iron in copper metallurgy at the dawn of the Iron Age: Insights on iron invention from a mining and smelting site in the Caucasus

Article Publication Date

26-Sep-2025

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Friday, September 26, 2025

Meta-analysis: COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy is safe and beneficial for mother and infant

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COVID pandemic disrupted sex ed for middle school (GR 6-9) students

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Period prepared: Research shows education helps teens feel informed, confident

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Expecting mothers increasingly turn to at-home births: New research

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How a 3000-year-old copper smelting site could be key to understanding the origins of iron

The site, shown here, was originally excavated during the Soviet period and was relocated using hand draw maps from a 1964 book.

Credit

Sparkly hematite mineral was used as a flux by copper smelters. Its distinctive appearance may have helped to attract attention from ancient miners and prospectors.

Credit

Copper smelters at the site used copper ores that lacked iron. Adding the iron oxide hematite to the furnace helped the copper metal to separate more easily from the impurities in the ore.

Credit

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