As 7 October marks seventy-five years since China’s invasion of Tibet, the consequences of that act of aggression continue to unfold across Asia. What began in 1950 as Mao Zedong’s military conquest has hardened into a decades-long occupation—one that threatens not only the cultural survival of the Tibetan people, but also the region’s strategic stability and fragile Himalayan ecology.
In October 1950, the People’s Liberation Army crossed the Jinsha River under Mao’s command, claiming to “liberate” Tibet from feudalism. In reality, it was the beginning of an illegal annexation that dismantled a sovereign nation, redrew South Asia’s strategic geography, and set off environmental changes whose effects now extend far beyond the plateau.
However, relations soured, and by 1954, discontent among Tibetans grew, leading to armed resistance. A brutal crackdown by Chinese forces followed the uprising in 1959, resulting in significant human rights abuses, including the destruction of monasteries and forced relocation of Tibetans. The Chinese government’s efforts to modernise Tibet involved substantial infrastructural changes, yet these often benefited Han Chinese settlers disproportionately, leaving many native Tibetans in poverty.
The geopolitical significance of Tibet, particularly regarding its proximity to sensitive areas like Sinkiang and India, influenced China’s actions. The resistance to Chinese rule persisted, highlighted by the Dalai Lama’s exile and international condemnation of China’s policies in Tibet. The Tibetan struggle has drawn global attention, emphasising issues of cultural preservation, human rights, and environmental impact.
The forceful incorporation of Tibet by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) violated international norms against the use of force for territorial acquisition. The invasion ended Tibet’s decades of de facto independence and subjugated its government through a treaty signed under duress.
The invasion directly violated the fundamental international norm that prohibits the use of force against another state. While China claims historical ties to the region, most international legal scholars agree that Tibet had the status of a sovereign state in 1950, making the military takeover an act of aggression.
After capturing eastern Tibet, the PRC forced Tibetan delegates to sign the Seventeen-Point Agreement in Beijing in May 1951. This agreement officially made Tibet a part of China. However, many scholars and the Tibetan government-in-exile consider the treaty invalid because it was signed under duress, and the Tibetan delegates lacked the authority to sign it. The Dalai Lama later repudiated the agreement.
The annexation also ran contrary to the principles of the newly formed United Nations. The UN Charter, established in 1945, bans the use or threat of force by member states for territorial gain. By invading Tibet in 1950, the PRC committed an internationally wrongful act from which no rights could be derived.
The PRC has long referred to the events of 1950–1951 as the “Peaceful Liberation of Tibet,” framed as a reclamation of its rightful territory and an effort to free Tibetans from a feudal system. This narrative is heavily contested, especially in light of the invasion of eastern Tibet and the human rights abuses that followed. China justifies its claim by citing historical relationships between ancient Chinese and Tibetan rulers.
While many in the international community reacted with shock to the invasion, Tibet was largely diplomatically isolated and received little foreign support. The global context of the Cold War and a desire by nations like India and the United States not to jeopardize relations with China limited official responses.
The UN General Assembly discussed the issue in the late 1950s and 1960s, passing resolutions condemning China’s human rights violations.
The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) found that China had violated the terms of the Seventeen-Point Agreement and committed human rights abuses.
Following a brutal crackdown on a 1959 Tibetan uprising, the 14th Dalai Lama and tens of thousands of Tibetans fled into exile. The Tibetan government-in-exile continues to maintain that Tibet is an independent state under illegal occupation.
This illegal occupation of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) has also led to rapid militarisation of the region. A major aspect of this militarization is the expansion of dual-use infrastructure and troop deployment, which enhance China’s strategic capabilities. China’s military build-up is primarily seen as a threat to India, particularly along the disputed Himalayan border known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
India has still not forgotten the 1962 humiliation. But it has given a bloody nose to the PLA whenever it has indulged in any misadventure. In 1967 India and the PLA soldiers clashed in Nathu La and Cho La along the Sikkim-Tibet border. Triggered by India’s attempt to demarcate the border with a barbed wire fence, the conflict escalated into artillery duels and intense machine gun fire, resulting in significant casualties on both sides. India ultimately prevailed, inflicting heavy losses on the Chinese forces and establishing a period of peace in the region for a long period.
Again in 2020, the armies of the two countries clashed on Galwan Valley in Ladakh, where both sides suffered heavy casualties. The clashes intensified China’s determination to strengthen its military control over high-altitude areas and infrastructure. In response, India has also expanded its own military infrastructure in the region.
Beijing’s 14th Five-Year Plan includes an $11.2 billion investment in TAR infrastructure by 2035, with major strategic implications for India. Construction of new and upgraded airports, including military and dual-use facilities, with some located close to the India-China border. Expansion of all-weather road and rail networks is happening to facilitate the rapid movement of troops and heavy equipment.
China’s military construction and infrastructure development threaten the Himalayan glaciers that feed major rivers in South and Southeast Asia, raising concerns about future water shortages for downstream populations. The construction of dams on rivers like the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) could also threaten India and other riparian states.
Threats to the local environment
In August 2025, the Institute for Security and Development Policy (ISDP) released a report on the ecological damage caused by China’s military expansion in Tibet. Military construction and movement of troops are accelerating the thawing of permafrost on the Tibetan Plateau, which contains vast amounts of sequestered carbon. This process releases greenhouse gases and disrupts the region’s hydrological systems.
The report noted that extensive construction of roads, airstrips, and bases has led to land degradation and damage to glaciers. This disrupts local biodiversity and affects water resources.
China’s illegal occupation of Tibet is not only a threat to regional security but also to the ecology. Unless the international community intervenes and puts pressure on China to stop the anarchy and environmental destruction in Tibet, there will be destruction of unimaginable proportions. A region with almost half of the world’s population can’t afford destruction of such dangerous proportions.
