Discovery of novel small compounds that delay flowering in plants

Researchers from Japan investigate chemicals that can control the timing of flowering, aiming to enhance crop yield and resilience

Nara Institute of Science and Technology

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Arabidopsis seedlings express a reporter of the flowering repressor, FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). FLC, seen in blue here, is strongly expressed in vascular tissues

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Credit: Makoto Shirakawa

Ikoma, Japan—In an era where climate change threatens food security, scientists worldwide are searching for reliable ways to improve crop production. Extreme weather and shifting seasonal patterns can disrupt traditional agricultural cycles, making technologies that regulate the timing of plant growth invaluable for farmers worldwide.

Plant growth and development are dependent on many factors such as the environment, photoperiod, and genetics. Flowering is an important event in a plant’s life cycle, and in many species, a period of cold exposure (or vernalization) is required before flowering in the spring. Once flowering begins, plants redirect nutrients from their leaves to seed production, reducing the nutritional value of leafy crops. While scientists understand many aspects of this process, mechanisms that can naturally pause or reverse this phase of preparation for flowering (devernalization) remain largely unexplored.

Against this backdrop, a research team led by Assistant Professor Makoto Shirakawa of Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Japan, has been investigating the molecular basis of devernalization. They identified a new class of small molecules called devernalizers (DVRs), capable of inducing devernalization without the requirement of heat treatment in the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana. Their findings were published in Volume 8 of Communications Biology on January 22, 2025. This work was co-authored by Nana Otsuka, Ryoya Yamaguchi, Hikaru Sawa, Nobutoshi Yamaguchi, and Toshiro Ito from NAIST; Naoya Kadofusa, Nanako Kato, and Ayato Sato from Nagoya University; and Yasuyuki Nomura and Atsushi J. Nagano from Ryukoku University.

The researchers screened over 16,000 chemical compounds and discovered five DVRs that reactivated the expression of the FLOWERING LOCUS C gene, a key suppressor of flowering. By minimizing specific dynamic modifications to the plant’s genes, these DVRs could delay flowering even after induced vernalization. Notably, three of these DVRs shared two critical structural features—a hydantoin-like region and a spiro-like carbon—which were found to be essential for the devernalizing effect.

Furthermore, the team identified a sixth DVR compound—named DVR06—which was structurally simpler yet retained the above-mentioned key features. Experimental results showed that plants treated with DVR06 exhibited delayed flowering without adverse side effects. A genome-wide analysis revealed that DVR06 affected a more specific set of genes compared to heat-induced devernalization, highlighting its potential for flowering regulation. “It was well known that applying heat treatment to plants in the field is both labor-intensive and costly. So, I was really excited when we found out that DVR06 had a more specific effect than heat treatment. This was the moment when all the time we had spent on screening finally paid off!” shares Shirakawa.

The discovery of DVR06 and its mechanisms could pave the way for new agricultural technologies that allow farmers to effectively regulate flowering times. By delaying flowering, leafy crops may maintain their nutritional quality for longer periods, increasing yields and reducing wastage. The research team aims to improve the efficacy of DVRs, as Ito remarks: “We will conduct further research to change the structure of DVRs to develop compounds with greater activity and specificity. We expect the results of these studies to lead to the development of new technologies for stable food production under a fluctuating global environment.”

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Resource

Title: Small molecules and heat treatments reverse vernalization via epigenetic modification in Arabidopsis

Authors: Nana Otsuka, Ryoya Yamaguchi, Hikaru Sawa, Naoya Kadofusa, Nanako Kato, Yasuyuki Nomura, Nobutoshi Yamaguchi, Atsushi J. Nagano, Ayato Sato, Makoto Shirakawa, and Toshiro Ito

Journal : Communications Biology

DOI: 10.1038/s42003-025-07553-7

Information about the Plant Stem Cell Regulation and Floral Patterning Laboratory can be found at the following website: https://bsw3.naist.jp/ito/

 

About Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST)

Established in 1991, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST) is a national university located in Kansai Science City, Japan. In 2018, NAIST underwent an organizational transformation to promote and continue interdisciplinary research in the fields of biological sciences, materials science, and information science. Known as one of the most prestigious research institutions in Japan, NAIST lays a strong emphasis on integrated research and collaborative co-creation with diverse stakeholders. NAIST envisions conducting cutting-edge research in frontier areas and training students to become tomorrow's leaders in science and technology.

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Journal

Communications Biology

DOI

10.1038/s42003-025-07553-7 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Article Title

Small molecules and heat treatments reverse vernalization via epigenetic modification in Arabidopsis

Genetic defense breakthrough: plants repurpose stomatal genes to fend off herbivores

Researchers uncovered the evolutionary process behind cruciferous plants’ pungent defense mechanism

Nara Institute of Science and Technology

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WASABI MAKER is strongly expressed at nuclei of idioblast myosin cells in leaf inner tissues (green). Cell walls are stained by SR2200 (magenta).

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Credit: Makoto Shirakawa

Ikoma, Japan—Throughout evolution, plants have continuously adapted to survive in changing environments. Apart from complex structural changes, plants have also developed various defense strategies against herbivores, including tougher protective layers, thorns, and chemical deterrents. Delving deeper into the evolution of defense mechanisms, a research team led by Assistant Professor Makoto Shirakawa from Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), identified a surprising genetic adaptation in the Brassicales plant order. In these cruciferous plants—including cabbage, mustard, and wasabi—genes originally used for gas exchange have been repurposed for defense.

The researchers uncovered the unique mechanism behind this evolutionary adaptation. Their findings were published online on February 24, 2025 and published in Volume 11 of the journal Nature Plants on March 01, 2025. The research team included Tomoki Oguro, Nobutoshi Yamaguchi, and Toshiro Ito from NAIST; Shigeo S. Sugano from National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology; Shohei Yamaoka and Takayuki Kohchi from Kyoto University; Yasunori Ichihashi from RIKEN Institute; Atsushi Takemiya from Yamaguchi University; and Takamasa Suzuki from Chubu University.

According to the study, FAMA, a protein primarily responsible for regulating gene expression for gas exchange, serves a dual role for the cruciferous plants. Beyond controlling stomatal (tiny pores for gas exchange) guard cells, FAMA also helps to produce myrosin cells—the specialized structures that store mustard oil compounds. So, when a plant is damaged, these compounds create a sharp, pungent taste that repels herbivores.

“We identified a specific gene called WASABI MAKER (WSB), which is directly activated by FAMA and is the key trigger for the development of myrosin cells,” shares Dr. Shirakawa. “When we studied the plants without WSB, we found that these defense cells failed to form, confirming its essential role in myrosin cell production.”

Additionally, the researchers identified another gene called STOMATAL CARPENTER 1 (SCAP1), which is also a target for FAMA. This gene collaborates with WSB in regulating guard cell development, but its role in myrosin cell formation appears to be secondary.

Evolutionary analysis suggests that these genetic pathways originally helped regulate stomatal development but were later repurposed for defense in Brassicales. “This discovery is particularly interesting because it highlights how gene repurposing allows plants to develop new survival strategies without evolving entirely new genes,” adds co-author Toshiro Ito.

This remarkable discovery offers promising avenues for improving crop yield. Modifying key genetic regulators like FAMA could help enhance the chemical defense in crops and vegetables, avoiding pest damage. Additionally, since FAMA also controls gas exchange, it can be optimized for efficient uptake of carbon dioxide in plants.

Moving forward, the researchers aim to uncover the mechanism of how plants have evolved to produce such a diverse range of specialized cells. Highlighting the significance of their research, Dr. Shirakawa concludes, “Beyond offering new insights for crop improvement strategies, we believe our future work will help answer one of biology’s most fundamental questions: How have plants achieved such remarkable diversity with a limited number of genes?”

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Resource

Title: Co-option and neofunctionalization of stomatal executors for defence against herbivores in Brassicales

Authors: Makoto Shirakawa, Tomoki Oguro, Shigeo S. Sugano, Shohei Yamaoka, Mayu Sagara, Mai Tanida, Kyoko Sunuma, Takuya Iwami, Tatsuyoshi Nakanishi, Keita Horiuchi, Kie Kumaishi, Soma Yoshida, Mutsumi Watanabe, Takayuki Tohge, Takamasa Suzuki, Yasunori Ichihashi, Atsushi Takemiya, Nobutoshi Yamaguchi, Takayuki Kohchi, and Toshiro Ito

Journal: Nature plants

DOI: 10.1038/s41477-025-01921-1

Information about the Plant Stem Cell Regulation and Floral Patterning Laboratory can be found at the following website: https://bsw3.naist.jp/ito/

 

About Professor Makoto Shirakawa from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan

Dr. Makoto Shirakawa is an Assistant Professor at Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST) in Ikoma, Japan. He earned his PhD from Kyoto University, Japan, and specializes in plant biology, molecular biology, cell biology, genome editing, and botany. His key research includes CRISPR/Cas9 applications in Marchantia polymorpha, studies on Arabidopsis thaliana, and plant development. For his remarkable contributions, he is recognized among Japan's top scientists in plant cell and developmental biology.

 

About Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST)

Established in 1991, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST) is a national university located in Kansai Science City, Japan. In 2018, NAIST underwent an organizational transformation to promote and continue interdisciplinary research in the fields of biological sciences, materials science, and information science. Known as one of the most prestigious research institutions in Japan, NAIST lays a strong emphasis on integrated research and collaborative co-creation with diverse stakeholders. NAIST envisions conducting cutting-edge research in frontier areas and training students to become tomorrow's leaders in science and technology.

Website: https://www.naist.jp/en/

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Journal

Nature Plants

DOI

10.1038/s41477-025-01921-1 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Article Title

Co-option and neofunctionalization of stomatal executors for defence against herbivores in Brassicales

 

Those constantly distracted by their phone will just find other ways to procrastinate if it isn’t nearby

A researcher put physical distance between people and their phones and found that our devices may not be the cause of our distraction – it’s what we do with them

Frontiers

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If you just put away your phone to read this, chances are you’re not alone. Our phones are an endless source of distraction, and we interact with them every four to six minutes. This is often driven by habit as well as notifications, leading to a disrupted flow of activity while we’re trying to be productive.

A new study published in Frontiers in Computer Science investigated if placing smartphones just out of our reach while we’re at work influenced device use for activities not related to work.  

“The study shows that putting the smartphone away may not be sufficient to reduce disruption and procrastination, or increase focus,” said the paper’s author Dr Maxi Heitmayer, a researcher at the London School of Economics. “The problem is not rooted within the device itself, but in the habits and routines that we have developed with our devices.”

Device vs distance

In the study, 22 participants were asked to work for two days in a private, soundproof room to which they brought the devices they usually have on them for work, a laptop and phone at a minimum. They did not change notification settings, and the notifications they received were in no way controlled by the researcher. Two settings that only differed by the distance between participant and their phone were explored: in the first, phones were placed on the desk participants were working from, in the second, the phone was placed on a separate desk 1.5 meters away.

Limited smartphone accessibility led to reduced smartphone use, but instead of becoming less distracted, participants shifted their attention to their laptops. Across conditions, participants did not spend different amounts of time on work or leisure activities.

In addition, the results showed that phones were the preferred device for distraction. “It’s your connection with loved ones and with work. It’s your navigation system, alarm clock, music player, and source of information. Unsurprisingly, people turn to the tool that does everything,” Heitmayer pointed out. “Even if you have no clear purpose, you know it has your socials and can provide entertainment.” While computers can fulfill the same functions, using one is less haptically pleasant, and they are not as handy and portable.

“In my research I want to shift the discourse beyond device-centric debates,” Heitmayer said. “The smartphone itself is not the problem. It’s what we do with it and, frankly, the apps that generate and reinforce these habits.”

Made to distract

To optimize time spent without distractions, notifications can be set to arrive at specific times or be silenced altogether. Any way that helps users be more mindful with their time is a step in the right direction, Heitmayer said. Despite these strategies, he cautioned that, realistically, we’re not stopping to pick up our phones anytime soon. “Whenever there is a small break, people check their phone, regardless of whatever system they have in place. And then there’s the socials, which is an entirely different beast.”

“There is a very unequal battle fought out every single day by each and every one of us when we use our phones,” Heitmayer continued. “The things inside phones that are the biggest attention sinks are developed by large corporations who greatly profit from our failure to resist the temptation to use them; all of this is literally by design.”

Heitmayer also said that in the future we should focus on protecting users, particularly young ones. “These devices are incredibly useful and can facilitate learning and creativity, but they come at a cost that most adults struggle to manage, so we simply cannot ignore this.”

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Journal

Frontiers in Computer Science

DOI

10.3389/fcomp.2025.1422244 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

When the Phone's Away, People Use Their Computer to Play Distance to the Smartphone Reduces Device Usage but not Overall Distraction and Task Fragmentation during Work

Article Publication Date

28-Mar-2025

Smartphone bans alone fail to equip children for healthy use of technology

Focus should shift to a rights based approach, argue experts

BMJ Group

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Banning smartphone and social media access alone fails to equip children for healthy use of technology, argues a group of international experts in The BMJ today.

They say the focus should shift to a rights based approach, underpinned by age appropriate design and education, that protects children from harm while developing skills to help them participate in a digital society.

Bans on smartphone and social media access have been advocated in many countries to protect children from harm despite lack of evidence on their effects, explain Victoria Goodyear and colleagues.

For example, a recent evaluation of school smartphone policies in England reported that restricted smartphone use in schools was not associated with benefits to adolescent mental health and wellbeing, physical activity and sleep, educational attainment, or classroom behaviour. 

That study also found no evidence of school restrictions being associated with lower levels of overall phone or media use or problematic social media use.

While technology-free moments and spaces are important for children, the authors argue that blanket restrictions are “stop gap solutions that do little to support children’s longer term healthy engagement with digital spaces across school, home, and other contexts, and their successful transition into adolescence and adulthood in a technology filled world.”

Instead, they call for a rights based approach to smartphone and social media use, in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which recommends ways of protecting children from harm while nurturing the healthy development of smartphone and social media use.

Recent international legislation, such as the European Union’s Digital Services Act and the UK Online Safety Act, also reflect a clear understanding of the need to ensure children’s uses of technology are compatible with their wellbeing.

Immediate priorities are to improve legislation for the tech industry grounded in children’s rights and create professional training and guidance for schools, teachers, and parents to help them be actively involved in the development of children’s healthy technology use and in shaping future policies and approaches, they write. 

They acknowledge several potential challenges, but say in the longer term, this approach is likely to be more beneficial and sustainable as it is focused on building a safe ecosystem in a digital society.

“Ultimately, there is a need to shift debates, policies, and practices from a sole focus on restricting smartphone and social media access toward an emphasis on nurturing children’s skills for healthy technology use,” they conclude.

[Ends]

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Journal

The BMJ

DOI

10.1136/bmj-2024-082569 

Method of Research

Commentary/editorial

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Approaches to children’s smartphone and social media use must go beyond bans

Article Publication Date

27-Mar-2025

COI Statement

We have read and understood BMJ policy on declaration of interests and have the following interests to declare: GS is president of Games for Change Latin America, a non-profit organisation that supports work to use games for social benefit; VG is a consortium member for a UK Department for Science Innovation and Technology funded project led by AO focused on children’s smartphone and social media use. VG was the principal investigator responsible for leading the programme focused on digital literacy education for teachers funded by Google in 2019.

Ottoman Empire’s religious ‘tolerance’ another form of control

Non-Muslim communities were recognized, given authority as way to monitor themselves amid Ottoman suspicions in wake of Greek revolt

Osaka Metropolitan University

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The Ottoman Empire’s seeming tolerance of non-Muslim religions was part of a way to manage communities that drew the empire’s suspicions, according to an Osaka Metropolitan University historian.

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Credit: Osaka Metropolitan University

Population surveillance. The carrying of identification while traveling. Add to that the public presence of diverse religions and it sounds like 2025, but this was life in the Ottoman Empire 200 years ago. Yet this seeming tolerance of non-Muslim faiths was in fact tied to the first two aspects, according to research by Osaka Metropolitan University Associate Professor Masayuki Ueno.

The Ottoman Empire lasted from around 1300 until 1922, and at various points in its history ruled present-day Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Hungary, and beyond. In the wake of the 1821 Greek revolt, the Ottoman Empire instituted several changes to maintain control over the population, especially in its capital of Istanbul. Internal passports were issued and surveillance was conducted not by infiltrating non-Muslim communities, including Greek populations, but by granting powers to those non-Muslim religious authorities to monitor their own people.

Behind the recognition of religions and the representation of non-Muslim religious authorities in the governing system was deep Ottoman suspicion, not a policy of tolerance, concludes Professor Ueno of the Graduate School of Literature and Human Sciences, an expert on the history of Christian Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.

“Uncovering this history helps form a bridge between what we know about the Ottoman Empire during two periods that have been studied separately, the early modern (16th to 18th centuries) and the modern (19th to early 20th centuries), in the context of a series of recent studies that have reexamined our understanding of the treatment of non-Muslims in the empire,” Professor Ueno explained. “I hope this will lead to further discussions.”

The findings were published in Comparative Studies in Society and History.

###

About OMU 

Established in Osaka as one of the largest public universities in Japan, Osaka Metropolitan University is committed to shaping the future of society through “Convergence of Knowledge” and the promotion of world-class research. For more research news, visit https://www.omu.ac.jp/en/ and follow us on social media: X, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn.

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Journal

Comparative Studies in Society and History

DOI

10.1017/S0010417524000343 

Method of Research

Case study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Purifying Istanbul: The Greek Revolution, Population Surveillance, and Non-Muslim Religious Authorities in the Early Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Empire

Ukraine Rare Earths Deal Is Nonsense To Mining Experts

By Andrew Topf - Mar 26, 2025

The U.S. is eyeing Ukraine’s vast mineral wealth—including rare earths, lithium, and titanium—as a way to recoup war-related aid.

Experts warn that Ukraine’s rare earth deposits are overstated, outdated, and largely inaccessible.

Despite the risks and limited returns, a minerals-for-reconstruction deal appears to be moving forward.



The United States is pinning its hopes on reclaiming expenses incurred on Ukraine during its war with Russia by tapping Ukraine’s vast mineral potential including the development of rare earth element deposits.

The problem with this deal is two-fold: one, the deposits in question are mostly within Russian-occupied territory; and two, rare earths are difficult to find lumped together in economic quantities, and even harder to separate into rare earth oxides, that are used in everything from cell phones to electric vehicles to high-tech weaponry.

The deal

First, the proposed deal. It outlines a plan to use future revenues from Ukraine’s rare earth and critical mineral reserves, as well as oil and gas.

According to Al Jazeera, a Reconstruction Investment Fund would be created, using revenues generated from Ukraine’s natural resources to reinvest in reconstruction following over three years of intense war.


Ukraine would contribute 50 percent of revenues from state-owned resources to the fund. It is unclear where the remaining half would come from and how much control the US would wield over the funds, says Al Jazeera, adding the US will support Ukraine’s efforts to secure lasting peace but offers no direct security guarantees.

How much aid was sent to Ukraine?

In that now-infamous meeting between Trump, Vice President Vance and Ukraine’s President Zelensky, Trump said the US has paid more than $350 billion in military aid/ support to Ukraine.

Zelensky disputed that figure — likely an unsubstantiated Trump guesstimate, which started at $500B — saying it was much lower.

The Kiel Institute for the World Economy, which has tracked military, financial and humanitarian aid to Ukraine since the war began, said the United States has donated $118 billion.


The US Department of Defense puts the number at $183 billion, which includes the cost of replenishing Ukraine’s defense stocks.

What minerals does Ukraine have?

According to Ukraine’s Economy Ministry, the country holds deposits of 22 out of 34 minerals classified as critical by the European Union.

These critical minerals — whose reserves made up approximately 5 percent of the global supply as of 2022 — include precious and non-ferrous metals, ferroalloys and minerals such as titanium, zirconium, graphite and lithium.

Ukraine has an estimated 500,000 tonnes of lithium reserves, which are considered among Europe’s largest repositories of the battery metal.Related: Iraq Hands BP Final Approval for Kirkuk Oil Development


As for the rare earths, according to The Independent, Ukraine has rare earth elements such as lanthanum and cerium, used in TVs and lighting; neodymium, used in wind turbines and EV batteries; and erbium and yttrium, whose applications range from nuclear power to lasers. EU-funded research also indicates Ukraine has reserves of high-priced scandium, but the data is classified.

These rare-earth resources are estimated to have a value of more than £12 trillion, and according to The Independent, Zelensky has been trying to develop them for years. He reportedly offered outside investors tax breaks and investment rights to help mine these minerals in 2021, but war broke out a year later.

More than 95 percent of industrially useful rare-earth metals are produced by China, creating supply chain and national security vulnerabilities in the US and elsewhere.

A recent graphic by Visual Capitalist says Ukraine claims to hold nearly $15 trillion worth of mineral resources, making it one of the most resource-rich nations in Europe. The country is home to the continent’s largest reserves of lithium, titanium, and uranium.

According to data from the Ukrainian geologic survey, Ukraine possesses 5% of the world’s mineral resources, including 23 of the 50 materials deemed critical by the U.S. government. These include:Titanium– Used in aerospace and military applications
Graphite– Essential for battery production
Lithium– A key component of lithium-ion batteries
Beryllium– Vital for defense and telecommunications
Rare Earth Elements– Crucial for electronics, renewable energy, and defense industries




Source: Visual Capitalist

Where are the deposits?

The Independent says A little over £6 trillion of Ukraine’s mineral resources, which is around 53 per cent of the country’s total, are contained in the four regions Mr Putin illegally annexed in September 2022, and of which his army occupies a considerable swathe.


That includes Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia and Kherson, though Kherson holds little value in terms of minerals.



The Crimean peninsula, illegally annexed and occupied by Mr Putin’s forces in 2014, also holds roughly £165bn worth of minerals.


The region of Dnipropetrovsk, which borders the largely occupied regions of Donetsk and Zaporizhzhia, and sits in the face of an advancing Russian army, contains an additional £2.8 trillion in mineral resources.


Russian difficulties with major military operations seem likely to preclude a serious attempt to take the region but mining operations in the area would be perilous with Moscow’s soldiers so close.

Before the Russian invasion, Ukraine had registered 20,000 mineral deposits, with 8,700 of them proven and encompassing 117 of the world’s 120 most used metals and minerals, according to the Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development.

Other key points made by Al Jazeera:The country has some of the world’s top recoverable coal, gas, iron, manganese, nickel, ore, titanium and uranium reserves.


Most of these minerals span Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporzhizhia, Dnipropetrovsk, Korovohrad, Poltava and Kharkiv.


Russia, which controls approximately 20 percent of Ukraine, including large parts of Luhansk, Donetsk and Zaporzhizhia, is sitting on about 40 percent of Ukraine’s metal resources.


Ukraine has said that a significant portion of its rare earth elements are in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions.

However, despite all the hype about rare earths in Ukraine, the country doesn’t even make the top 12 countries ranked by the US Geological Survey as having the largest rare-earth mineral reserves. These countries are, in order, China, Brazil, India, Australia, Russia, Vietnam, the US, Greenland, Tanzania, South Africa, Canada and Thailand.

Are they mineable?

According to IEEE Spectrum, Ukraine doesn’t have any mineable rare earths. The publication quotes Erik Jonsson, senior geologist with the Geological Survey of Sweden, who says there are four areas with substantial deposits of rare earth ores, and four slightly bigger deposits: Yastrubetske, Novopoltavske, Azovske and Mazurivske.

All but one are within the zone that the Russians currently control.

The other problem is identifying the size of the deposits. While numbers are available, there is no detailed outline of how they were arrived at, and they are believed to come from the Soviet era dating as far back as the 1960s.

“The rare-earth deposits don’t look that relevant,” Jonsson concludes. “I mean, I wouldn’t go for them.” Two of the deposits are dominated by a mineral called britholite, he notes, which is not desirable because it has not been processed for rare earths, which means that almost nothing exists in the way of process chemistry and equipment.

Jack Lifton, executive chairman of the Critical Minerals Institute, is more scathing in his criticism.

“If you want critical minerals, Ukraine ain’t the place to look for them. It’s a fantasy,” he says. “There’s no point to any of this. There’s some other agenda going on here. I can’t believe that anybody in Washington actually believes that it makes sense to get rare earths in Ukraine.”

“I doubt very much that President Trump cares about rare earths,” adds Lifton. “He’s being told they’re important. He’s operating as a pure businessman.”

There is ample truth in what Lifton is saying, if one knows anything about rare earths.

Mining rare earth elements is fairly straightforward but separating and extracting a single REE takes a great deal of time, effort and expertise.

According to one expert, the ore is first ground up using crushers and rotating grinding mills, magnetic separation and flotation gives the lowest-value sellable product in the rare earth supply chain: the concentrated ore. The milling equipment — crushers, grinding mills, flotation devices, and electrostatic separators – all have to be configured in a way that suits the type of ore being mined. No two ores respond the same way.

The next step is to chemically extract the mixed rare earths from the concentrated ore (cons) by chemical processing. The cons must undergo chemical treatment to allow further separation and upgrading of the REEs. This process, called cracking, includes techniques like roasting, salt or caustic fusion, high-temperature sulfidation, and acid leaching which allow the REEs within a concentrate to be dissolved. This separates the mixed rare earths from any other metals that may be present in the ore. The result will be still-mixed-together rare earths.

The major value in REE processing lies in the production of high-purity rare earth oxides (REOs) and metals but it isn’t easy. A REE refinery uses ion exchange and/or multi-stage solvent extraction technology to separate and purify the REEs. Solvent-extraction processes involve re-immersing processed ore into different chemical solutions to separate individual elements. The elements are so close to each other in terms of atomic weight that each of these processes involve multiple stages to complete the separation process. In some cases it requires several hundred tanks of different solutions to separate one rare earth element. HREEs are the hardest, most time consuming to separate.

The composition of REOs can also vary greatly. They can and often are designed to meet the specifications laid out by the end product users — a REO that suits one manufacturer’s needs may not suit another’s.

Less technically, The Independent says investors highlight a number of barriers to investment in Ukraine, such as inefficient, complex regulatory processes, difficulty accessing geological data, and obtaining land plots. They said such projects would take years to develop and require considerable up-front investment.

It's worth noting that the United States currently has only one operating rare earths mine, Mountain Pass in California. Rare earths are mined and made into a concentrate before being shipped to China for further processing.

Developing a mine from discovery to production in places like the United States and Canada can take upwards of 20 years.

Is the minerals deal still on?

It appears to be. After the disastrous meeting in the Oval Office, Zelensky wrote a letter to Trump saying that Ukraine is ready to sign the minerals deal — even though the US hasn’t offered Ukraine any security guarantees.

The current ceasefire deal looks to be heavily skewed toward Russia’s demands. Ukraine and Russia have agreed to a moratorium on attacking each other’s ships in the Black Sea. However, the Kremlin said it would only implement the ceasefire once the US delivers sanctions relief on Russian agricultural products and fertilizers, The Guardian pointed out Wednesday, noting that observers are questioning whether Russia has given anything to secure its first offer of sanctions relief since the beginning of the war. Ukraine has opposed any sanctions rollback on Russia.

The Guardian analysis said the Trump administration appears ready to make a deal with Russia that offers two prices to halt its war with Ukraine: political and military concessions from Ukraine as well as an escape from the international isolation that began after its full-scale invasion in 2022.

By Andrew Topf for Oilprice.com

Truce or stalemate? The fault lines between Ukraine, Russia and the United States