Study finds dramatic boost in air quality from electrifying railways

A new study found that electrifying the San Francisco Bay Area’s Caltrain commuter rail line reduced riders’ exposure to black carbon, a carcinogen, by an average of 89%

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of California - Berkeley

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In late summer 2024, Caltrain replaced its diesel fleet with brand new electric trains. A new UC Berkeley study found that the electrification of the commuter rail line led to a dramatic boost in air quality in and around the trains.

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Credit: Adam Lau/UC Berkeley

Switching from diesel to electric trains dramatically improved the air quality aboard the San Francisco Bay Area’s Caltrain commuter rail line, reducing riders’ exposure to the carcinogen black carbon by an average of 89%, finds a new study published today in the journal Environmental Science and Technology Letters. 

The electrification of the system also significantly reduced the ambient black carbon concentrations within and around the San Francisco station, the study found.

“The transition from diesel to electric trains occurred over just a few weeks, and yet we saw the same drop in black carbon concentrations in the station as California cities achieved from 30 years of clean air regulations,” said study senior author Joshua Apte, a professor of environmental engineering and environmental health at the University of California, Berkeley. “It really adds to the case for electrifying the many other rail systems in the U.S. that still use old, poorly regulated diesel locomotives.”

Caltrain operates the busiest commuter rail system in the western U.S., carrying millions of passengers a year along its 47-mile route between San Francisco and San Jose. Over the course of six weeks in August and September 2024, the system retired all 29 of its diesel locomotives and replaced them with 23 new electric trains. The debut of the new trains was the culmination of a $2.44 billion modernization and decarbonization project that first launched in 2017.

Apte, an expert in air quality monitoring, was inspired to pursue the study after visiting a Caltrain station in August 2024, when the very first electric trains were being introduced. 

“I was stunned at how much the station smelled like diesel smoke and how noisy it was from the racket of diesel locomotives idling away at the platforms, dumping smoke out into the community,” Apte said. “A light bulb went off my head — I realized this would all be going away in a few weeks.”

After securing the support of Caltrain, Apte and study lead author Samuel Cliff quickly mobilized, installing black carbon detectors at Caltrain stations and carrying portable air quality detectors aboard the trains. For four weeks, they tracked the rapid improvements in air quality as old diesel locomotives were replaced by new electric trains. 

“A lot of these transitions happen pretty slowly. This one happened in a blink of an eye,” Apte said. “We had the unique opportunity to capture the ancillary public health benefits.”

According to Apte and Cliff’s calculations, the reduction in black carbon exposure achieved from Caltrain’s electrification cut excess cancer deaths by 51 per 1 million people for riders and 330 per 1 million people for train conductors. For reference, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has a policy that any exposure that increases the average individual’s cancer risk by more than one per million is considered unacceptable. 

“If you think about this in the context of the whole of the U.S., where we have millions of people commuting by rail every day, that's hundreds of cases of cancer that could be prevented each year,” said Cliff, a postdoctoral scholar at UC Berkeley. 

The majority of U.S. commuter trains are still powered by diesel fuel, despite the fact that electric trains are quieter, more reliable and produce fewer greenhouse gases than diesel locomotives. Apte hopes the study motivates more U.S. municipalities to follow the lead of Asian and European countries in electrifying their railways. 

“This is something that we ought to find a way to do as quickly as possible, everywhere,” Apte said. “California has long-term plans to electrify most of its rail systems, but this shows that we shouldn't be waiting another 25 years to get it done. We should be speeding it up.”

Co-authors of the study include Haley McNamara Byrne and Allen Goldstein of UC Berkeley. 

UC Berkeley postdoctoral scholar Samuel Cliff (left) and professor Joshua Apte at the San Francisco Caltrain Station. Each is holding one of the portable air quality monitors that they used to measure black carbon concentrations aboard the trains.

Samuel Cliff downloads data from a portable air quality monitor at a Caltrain station.

Credit

Adam Lau/UC Berkeley

Journal

Environmental Science & Technology Letters

DOI

10.1021/acs.estlett.4c01096 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Dramatic Air Quality Improvements after the Complete Electrification of a Commuter Rail System

Article Publication Date

16-Apr-2025

How do different operating schemes affect urban rail transit resilience?

Tsinghua University Press

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(a, d, g) The percolation transition processes during the morning peak, off-peak, and evening peak periods for the URT system. (b, c) The network phase transitions occurring during the morning peak period. (e, f) The network phase transitions during the off-peak period. (h, i) The network phase transitions during the evening peak period. (j) The trend of critical percolation threshold throughout the entire day.

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Credit: Communications in Transportation Research

To answer this question: How do different operating schemes affect urban rail transit resilience? researchers at Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing Mass Transit Railway Operation Corporation Ltd., The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and Dalian University of Technology, constructed a passenger-train coupled network percolation model to investigate the impact of different operating schemes on urban rail transit system.

 

They published their study on 1 April 2025, in Communications in Transportation Research.

 

“We develop a percolation-based resilience framework to analyze the Beijing urban rail transit system resilience under different operating schemes. This framework is based on multi-source data, such as train timetable data, smart card data, train routing data etc. Therefore, a more precise result can be obtained from our framework.” says Xin Yang, a researcher at the School of Systems Science at Beijing Jiaotong University.

 

Percolation transition on URT network

When a given threshold q=0, the URT network during morning and evening rush hours is not intact, too heavy commuting passenger flow causes this phenomenon. As the threshold q increases, the URT network experiences gradual collapse at a given point in time. However, the same network exhibits substantial differences in terms of resilience for the threshold q.

 

During the morning rush hours, due to longer commuting times from suburban areas, traffic flows mainly from the fringes of the network towards its center currently, with failure links predominantly clustered around the network's periphery.

 

Conversely, at noon, traffic is distributed homogeneously across the URT network, resulting in improved network connectivity. And the evening rush hour, the performance of the URT network is better than in the morning rush hour.

 

Identification of bottleneck during phase transition

Identifying bottlenecks during the dynamic network evolution of URT is pivotal. Enhancing the capacity of bottlenecks and ensuring they do not malfunction after accidental damage can prevent the network from breaking into several small clusters and improve connectivity at a reasonable cost.

 

Therefore, we counted the number of times a bottleneck appeared in the network. The results show that the occurrence frequency and probability exhibit a typical power law distribution, indicating the links that become bottlenecks more often are very rare, and most of them become bottlenecks only a few times within a day.

 

 

About Communications in Transportation Research

Communications in Transportation Research was launched in 2021, with academic support provided by Tsinghua University and China Intelligent Transportation Systems Association. The Editors-in-Chief are Professor Xiaobo Qu, a member of the Academia Europaea from Tsinghua University and Professor Shuai’an Wang from Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The journal mainly publishes high-quality, original research and review articles that are of significant importance to emerging transportation systems, aiming to become an international platform and window for showcasing and exchanging innovative achievements in transportation and related fields, to promote the exchange and development of transportation research between China and the international academic community. It has been indexed in ESCI, Ei Compendex, Scopus, DOAJ, TRID and other databases. In 2022, it was selected as a high-starting-point new journal project of the “China Science and Technology Journal Excellence Action Plan”. This year, it received the first impact factor of 12.5.  The 2023 IF is 12.5, ranking in the Top1 (1/57, Q1) among all journals in "TRANSPORTATION" category. At its discretion, Tsinghua University Press will pay the open access fee for all published papers in 2025.

 

About Tsinghua University Press

Established in 1980, as a department of Tsinghua University, Tsinghua University Press (TUP) is a leading comprehensive higher education and professional publisher in China. TUP publishes 58 journals and 38 of them are in English. There are 18 journals indexed by SCIE/ESCI. Three of them have the highest impact factor in its field. In 2022, TUP launched SciOpen. As a publishing platform of TUP, SciOpen provides free access to an online collection of journals across diverse academic disciplines and serves to meet the research needs of scientific communities. SciOpen provides end-to-end services across manuscript submission, peer review, content hosting, analytics, identity management, and expert advice to ensure each journal’s development.

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Journal

Communications in Transportation Research

DOI

10.1016/j.commtr.2025.100177 

Article Title

Urban rail transit resilience under different operation schemes: A percolation-based approach

Article Publication Date

15-Apr-2025

 

Hold-up - are high support bras bad for the back?

Researchers from the University of Portsmouth, England, uncover how over-reducing breast motion in bras could increase back pain during exercise

University of Portsmouth

• Improvements in bra design that focus on maximising bounce reduction may increase loading on the spine

• A first-of-its-kind female musculoskeletal model estimated the potential impact of high-support bras on the back

• These findings show that a theoretical bra that achieves 100 per cent bounce reduction may increase loading on the spine 

Research from the University of Portsmouth suggests that bras offering excessive bounce reduction may come with hidden consequences for spinal health.

Sports bras are extremely popular in the health and fitness world, with the bra industry often emphasising "bounce reduction" as a key indicator of a bra's performance. However, a new study suggests that high-support bras that significantly reduce breast bounce could have a detrimental effect on the spine.

Published in the European Journal of Sport Science, the preliminary research revealed that bras designed to prevent breast bounce during exercise may unknowingly cause potential unseen consequences on the musculoskeletal system.

Dr Chris Mills and a team from the School of Psychology, Sport and Health Sciences at the University of Portsmouth employed advanced tools - including motion capture, force platforms, and a 3D surface scanner - to investigate the effects of breast movement on spinal rotational forces. Using a first-of-its-kind whole body female specific musculoskeletal model, the study examined how varying levels of breast support influenced torso motion, breast forces, and spinal moments during running.

The findings revealed that while sports bras are essential for reducing breast pain during exercise, achieving 100 percent bounce reduction could unintentionally increase loading on the spine. 

Simulated conditions showed that bras eliminating breast movement led to higher spinal moments, which could elevate the risk of lumbar back pain. Researchers emphasised the importance of striking an optimal balance in bra design; reducing breast bounce without overloading the spine.

Dr Mills said: "While a supportive sports bra is crucial for exercise comfort, excessive bounce reduction may place additional strain on spinal muscles, increasing the risk of back pain."

The study, built on two decades of research by the University’s Research Group in Breast Health, highlights the need for bra manufacturers to consider the unseen musculoskeletal impacts on the human body in their designs. Professor Wakefield-Scurr, often referred to as the ‘Bra Professor’, added, “These findings suggest that striving for maximum bounce reduction may inadvertently pose challenges to spinal health during activities like running.

“As sports bras evolve, this study challenges industry leaders to innovate designs that balance comfort, breast support, and holistic health, ensuring that bounce reduction doesn’t come at a cost to spinal health.”

The creation of a subject-specific female musculoskeletal model enabled researchers to gain a detailed understanding and approximation of changes in spinal moments, following simulated changes in breast motion during running.

Previous research by the Portsmouth team used the model to predict changes in spinal moments after breast surgery. 

“The musculoskeletal model could become a useful tool in predicting appropriate and personalised rehabilitation recommendations, which could help ease the loading on the spine after breast surgeries”, explained Dr Mills.

“Understanding the individual muscular contributions will help to develop personalised pre-surgical rehabilitation programs as well as bras that work in tandem with each female body to maximise performance and reduce injury risk.

“Moving forward the key goal is to determine what is the optimal amount of bounce reduction to both reduce exercise induced breast pain and also the internal loading on the spine during physical activity.”

Last year the Research Group in Breast Health’s (RGBH)  bra testing unit celebrated its 10th anniversary. In the past decade, the unit has monitored the performance of over 700 sports bras and on over 8,000 women.

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Journal

European Journal of Sport Science

DOI

10.1002/ejsc.12290 

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Modelling Female Breast Motion During Running: Implications of Breast Support on the Spine

 

New study confirms copper-based fungicides as a reliable solution for aerial stem rot in potatoes

American Phytopathological Society

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Symptoms of aerial stem rot (ASR) caused by Pectobacterium carotovorum. A, Initial infections occur through wounds such as petiole scars or insect damage and expand outward, creating a distinct black lesion. B, The lesion spreads down the stem, infecting petioles and eventually killing the stem. C, Severe ASR infection showing disease in four out of five stems on the plant. Note that the lesions have spread down the stem as healthy, green tissue can be seen around the base of the plant in the infected stems.

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Credit: Courtesy Phillip S. Wharton—© 2025 The American Phytopathological Society

Potato growers face a persistent late-season threat: aerial stem rot (ASR), a bacterial disease primarily caused by Pectobacterium carotovorum. Often emerging after thunderstorms and other weather events, ASR has long been a challenge to manage effectively. While previous research has suggested the potential of copper-based fungicides to control ASR, inconsistent results left many growers uncertain about the products’ reliability. Now, a decade-long study provides conclusive evidence that copper fungicides offer a dependable solution.

Published in Plant Health Progress, this comprehensive research effort was led by Phillip S. Wharton of the University of Idaho Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Nematology. The study analyzed 10 years of field trials in which copper-based fungicides were applied weekly, starting at row closure. Researchers assessed disease severity over a 4-week period following symptom onset, using the relative area under the disease progress curve to quantify disease progression. The results confirmed that copper fungicide treatments consistently slowed disease spread and improved yields.

“Even though in some years there were no significant differences in disease severity or yield between treated and untreated plots, when viewed over the 10-year period, copper fungicide treatments outperformed the untreated control,” explained Wharton. “Yields were at least 3 tonnes per hectare (27 hundredweight per acre) higher in treated plots, and disease levels were consistently lower.”

This study is the first to thoroughly investigate the efficacy of copper-based fungicides against ASR in potatoes. “Regardless of the formulation, copper fungicides effectively reduced ASR incidence and severity when applied on a 7-day schedule starting at row closure,” noted the research team.

Beyond demonstrating the effectiveness of copper fungicides, the study also underscores the importance of distinguishing ASR from blackleg, another bacterial disease commonly found in potato production. Unlike blackleg, which originates from infected seed pieces and moves upward through the stem, ASR infection begins in the potato canopy and becomes prominent after row closure. This fundamental difference means that while blackleg cannot be controlled through foliar fungicide applications, ASR can be effectively managed with consistent copper fungicide treatments.

The findings have significant implications for potato growers and crop consultants. Copper fungicides are not only effective in managing ASR but are also cost-efficient and approved for use in organic potato production. This research reinforces the role of copper-based fungicides as a practical tool for managing late-season bacterial diseases in potatoes.

For additional details, read “Ten-Year Trends in Aerial Stem Rot Management: Evaluating Copper-Based Solutions for Sustainable Potato Cultivation,” published in Plant Health Progress, to learn more.
 

About Plant Health Progress

Plant Health Progress (PHP) is a peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary, online journal of applied plant health. PHP, an official journal of The American Phytopathological Society, aims to publish new scientific information that enhances the health, management, and production of agricultural and horticultural crops.

Follow Plant Health Progress on X.

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Journal

Plant Health Progress

DOI

10.1094/PHP-08-24-0085-RS 

Article Title

Ten-Year Trends in Aerial Stem Rot Management: Evaluating Copper-Based Solutions for Sustainable Potato Cultivation

 

New study reveals how to make prescribed forest fires burn safer and cleaner

Stanford University

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Prescribed burns literally fight fire with more fire. Often referred to as a “beneficial fire,” they target areas at risk for wildfires and burn away material that could otherwise fuel a future blaze.

However, all fires, whether accidental or planned, produce smoke that can cause health and respiratory issues, especially in nearby communities. Burning fires release harmful chemicals, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), that are carcinogenic – PAHs can cause cancer, lung damage, and lead to weakened immunity in those who inhale smoke. 

Recently, in a study published in Atmospheric Pollution Research, scientists at Stanford University suggested ways to perform prescribed burns with drastically reduced health implications. They’ve determined that simply tweaking some of the burn conditions can slash PAH emissions by up to 77%. The researchers estimate that this could cut cancer risks from smoke exposure by over 50%.

“There is clearly potential for improving prescribed burn procedures, such that the health impact is reduced,” said Karl Töpperwien, lead author of the paper and postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Mechanical Engineering in the School of Engineering. “We can essentially kill two birds with one stone – protect ecosystems while simultaneously protecting communities that would be otherwise at risk.”

Many hands make light work

To bring this new method to fruition, Töpperwien’s team took a multidisciplinary approach, collaborating with medical researchers at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, physicists at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and chemical researchers at Aerodyne Research Inc. 

The medical researchers identified the most toxic pollutants from wildfires, in terms of potential harm to humans. Many PAHs are listed as carcinogenic pollutants by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and can cause long-term health impacts. “We were focusing on these as our priority pollutants because exposure to these pollutants can cause cancer, inflammation, and other types of diseases,” said Töpperwien.

Once identified, the next obstacle was how to measure these pollutants precisely. This is where the chemists brought in their expertise. “They are excellent experimentalists who really advanced the frontier of measuring chemical species at high selectivity and precision,” said Matthias Ihme, senior author of the paper and professor of mechanical engineering in the School of Engineering and of photon science at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory.

Töpperwien and Ihme’s team tied their collaborative efforts together by building the experimental apparatus that enabled these measurements and providing expertise on the fundamentals of fire behavior. They built a laboratory-sized combustion chamber where they burned samples of Eastern White Pine, one of the most common trees found on the eastern U.S with the highest emissions of PAHs among commonly studied hardwoods and softwoods.

Fine-tuning fires

Adjusting the moisture, heat, and oxygen level of the fires, the researchers conducted controlled burn experiments in their lab. They used high-resolution atmospheric and aerosol mass spectrometers to measure gaseous PAH emissions and particle-phase aerosols in real time.

Their experiments revealed that fine-tuning three conditions can reduce PAH emissions by up to 77%.

The first condition concerns the moisture content of the fuel. They found that the wood should have a moisture content of 20-30% – too dry and it burns too fast, producing more smoke, but too wet and it smolders, emitting high levels of PAH. Second, the heat intensity of the fire needs to be between 60-70 kW/m². Different levels of heat load promote different chemical reactions, which ultimately form PAHs: dialing in the heat means finding the “sweet spot” where the least PAH is formed. Finally, the fires need to burn with oxygen levels of 5-15%. Too little oxygen can cause inefficient burns, leading to too much smoke, while too much oxygen can make a fire burn uncontrollably.

These three burn parameters can effectively make prescribed burns safer and cleaner for the environment and for communities living near fire-prone regions.

Fire in the field

Ultimately, the question is whether these laboratory fires can be replicated in real-life prescribed burns. The researchers believe it to be highly possible and note that many of the techniques that could control these conditions are already used in field tests. “There will be some limitations to upscaling this, but I clearly see a path towards making this technique more viable for a broader range of environmental conditions,” said Ihme, who is also a principal investigator with the Stanford PULSE Institute at SLAC. 

In fact, Töpperwien remarks that forest managers and burn crews often prepare the wood by pre-burn treatments such as chopping, drying, and measuring moisture content to increase burn efficiency. Moisture content is perhaps the most straightforward parameter to control. Oxygen level and fire intensity are affected by the size of the wood burned and the arrangement of the burn pile, but it will take further research to understand how to precisely influence those parameters in a real-world burn. 

For the team, the next steps include replicating the laboratory burns in a field experiment and observing how their findings translate to real-life prescribed burns. The researchers will also expand this work by experimenting on different woods and by finding the best balance between cleaner burns, fuel consumption, and the cost of employing these methods. 

“Fire is more complex than we think,” said Ihme. “It’s not only finding where the flame is, but also how the smoke is transported, how it affects long-term health, and how it is admitted into the environment as it settles from the air onto the soil.”

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For more information

Additional Stanford co-authors of this work include postdoctoral scholar Guillaume Vignat, former postdoctoral scholar Alexandra Feinberg, and Matthias Kling, professor of photon science at Stanford and SLAC. Additional co-authors are from Aerodyne Research Inc. and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.

This research was funded by the Stanford Sustainability Accelerator, the Google Academic Research Awards program, the Moore Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy.

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Journal

Atmospheric Pollution Research

DOI

10.1016/j.apr.2025.102438 

Article Title

Burn parameters affect PAH emissions at conditions relevant for prescribed fires

 

How proactive salmon conservation in the North Pacific can deliver global benefits

A new study examines the “stronghold strategy”—an ambitious plan to protect food security, biodiversity, and climate resilience through salmon rivers

Wild Salmon Center

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Wild sockeye salmon in Bristol Bay, Alaska. Bristol Bay is one of the North Pacific river systems central to Wild Salmon Center's stronghold strategy for salmon conservation.

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Credit: Jason Ching

April 15, 2025 | Portland, Oregon—A new study in the journal Fisheries shows how a salmon-focused ecosystem protection strategy in the North Pacific can deliver meaningful results in the global drive to protect biodiversity.

The approach, called the stronghold strategy, aims to proactively protect the world’s greatest remaining “strongholds”—a select group of salmon, steelhead, and trout systems that collectively comprise 119 distinct watersheds. According to Wild Salmon Center President & CEO Guido Rahr—lead author of the peer-reviewed study—salmonids center the strategy because they are both iconic and globally recognized as keystone species. For the past 25 years, WSC has deployed the stronghold strategy in rivers across the North Pacific, with impacts that ripple far beyond the rivers that salmon call home. 

“When you protect salmon, you protect the benefits of healthy watersheds,” Rahr says. “The science is clear that salmon rivers can safeguard food security, species biodiversity, and climate resilience. So we built a strategy centered on strongholds—some of the best salmon river systems in the world.” 

Strongholds are distinguished by their relatively high levels of wild salmon abundance, productivity and diversity, along with habitat quality capable of sustaining wild salmon for decades. They include vast and stunning places like Bristol Bay, Alaska, and the Skeena and Dean watersheds in British Columbia. According to the authors, strongholds can play a key role in advancing the world’s 30 x 30 conservation goals. As some of the planet’s last large, intact landscapes, salmon strongholds sequester 6.1 billion tons of greenhouse gasses—roughly equivalent to 3.5 years of total U.S. emissions.

“Strongholds are already working hard on our behalf,” says study co-author and WSC Science Director Dr. Matthew Sloat. “We can build on their benefits by scaling up our stewardship, but time is a factor. The window is closing in which we can protect these systems from the threats that are breaking so many other salmon rivers.”

The authors note that the stronghold strategy aims to complement—rather than replace—different strategies to recover endangered salmon populations in systems degraded by development, harmful resource extraction, and other threats to wild fish. But in action, the stronghold strategy is uniquely proactive. In the decades since the strategy’s conception, WSC and a network of partners have protected 35.7 million acres of overall habitat and prioritized wild fish biodiversity in 89 rivers across the North Pacific. 

The study provides multiple case studies on the stronghold strategy’s impact. In Oregon, for example, NOAA Fisheries noted an increase in coho salmon population diversity following the strategic expansion of coastal “wild fish zones.” Another case study tracks the 2006 designation of Russia’s Kol watershed as the first World Heritage Site dedicated to salmon, as led by WSC and a coalition of Russian partners. The Kol’s whole-watershed protections became permanent in 2015, and have inspired the creation of nine additional large-scale protected areas for wild salmon across the Russian Far East.

“The stronghold strategy is already sustaining local fisheries, slowing the pace of biodiversity loss, and helping to mitigate climate change,” Dr. Sloat says. “The long-term protection of strongholds is one of the smartest, most cost-effective investments we can make for the health and wellbeing of future generations.”

The stronghold strategy aims to ensure that these systems will remain safe for decades, Dr. Sloat notes. For each system, success rests on achieving three pillars of durability: 

• Layered habitat protection and restoration. Each stronghold needs policies that can protect land and water through shifts in politics and economic pressure. 
• A fisheries management emphasis on wild fish biodiversity. According to Dr. Sloat, the rich genetic and life history diversity of salmon is the species’ superpower, enabling them to survive ice ages, floods, and dramatic climate changes. 
• A culture of local stewardship. The enduring presence of local land and water guardians builds what Rahr calls a human “immune response”—community members ready to defend a stronghold from threats.

“The stronghold strategy is about more than ensuring a future that we can share with these amazing wild fish,” Rahr says. “It’s about a legacy of wild rivers and wild places that we inherited, and that we owe to our children and grandchildren.” 

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ABOUT WILD SALMON CENTER
The mission of Wild Salmon Center is to promote the conservation and sustainable use of wild salmon ecosystems across the Pacific Rim. Working across the entire range of Pacific salmon, from California to the Western Pacific, WSC has led the protection of strongholds: the North Pacific's last, best salmon rivers. To date, the organization has worked with local partners to protect 35.7 million acres of habitat and prioritize 89 stronghold rivers for wild fish management. More at wildsalmoncenter.org.

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Journal

Fisheries

Method of Research

Case study

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Strongholds for Pacific salmon: A proactive conservation strategy for ecosystem health, food security, biodiversity, and climate resilience