Study links NYC congestion pricing policy to cleaner air in lower Manhattan

One year after New York City launched its congestion pricing policy, fine particulate pollution inside Manhattan’s congestion relief zone was 13 percent lower, according to a new analysis that accounted for regional pollution trends, weather and normal

Columbia Climate School

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Time series of monthly-averaged PM2.5 measurements at six representative NYC monitoring sites: (a) Manhattan Bridge, (b) Williamsburg Bridge, (c) Broadway & 35th, (d) Queensboro Bridge, (e) Cross Bronx Expressway, and (f) Queens College.

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Credit: ACS Publications

One year after New York City launched its congestion pricing policy, fine particulate pollution inside Manhattan’s congestion relief zone was 13 percent lower, according to a new analysis that accounted for regional pollution trends, weather and normal year-to-year variability.

“For the most part, the program appears to be working,” said Daniel M. Westervelt, a study coauthor and an associate research professor at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, which is part of the Columbia Climate School. “It reduced particulate pollution inside the congestion zone by a modest amount.”

Published in Environmental Science & Technology Letters, the study is among the first year-long assessments of the Central Business District Tolling Program, which took effect on January 5, 2025, and is the first congestion pricing program in the United States. The program charges most vehicles entering Manhattan south of 60th Street in an effort to reduce traffic congestion and generate revenue for public transit.

“A full year of data helps us see whether changes in air quality remain consistent across all seasons and different weather conditions,” said first author Polina Goldberg. “Other cities have been waiting to see what happens in New York before they consider anything similar, so we wanted to get the analysis right rather than fast.” Goldberg began the research with Westervelt as an undergraduate through Lamont’s summer internship program and is now starting graduate school at Columbia.

To examine the program’s early impacts on air quality and traffic patterns, the researchers analyzed ground-level air pollution measurements from 15 sites in New York City’s Community Air Survey real-time monitoring network, along with hourly traffic counts from two major tunnel crossings into Manhattan and satellite observations of nitrogen dioxide. This combined approach allowed the team to measure changes within the congestion zone and look for possible spillover pollution into adjacent areas.

In 2025, the number of vehicles coming into the congestion zone from the Queens Midtown and Brooklyn Battery tunnels was generally lower compared to 2024. While daily traffic patterns remained similar, the number of vehicles during morning and evening rush hours declined after congestion pricing began, signaling shifts in travel behavior during the busiest periods.

Air quality improvements inside the congestion zone

Monthly and daily monitoring data showed lower levels of fine particulate pollution, known as PM2.5, in 2025 compared with 2022-2024, particularly at sites in lower Manhattan. All six representative sites examined in detail had lower median PM2.5 concentrations in 2025 than in 2022-2024, with the largest decrease, about 2.7 micrograms per cubic meter, at the Broadway & 35th Street site in midtown Manhattan. The smallest decrease was at Queens College, the site farthest from the congestion zone, where the change was not statistically significant.

Because PM2.5 has been declining across the region due to seasonal patterns and policy influences, the researchers used a statistical approach to distinguish the program’s effects from these trends. They compared sites inside the zone with sites outside it while controlling for weather and seasonal effects.

That analysis found PM2.5 concentrations inside the zone were about 1.3 to 1.4 micrograms per cubic meter, or roughly 13 percent, lower than would be expected based on trends at sites outside it. This estimate is smaller than the largest raw site-level declines, because it reflects only the share of the improvement attributable to the tolling program.

That estimated decrease broadly tracked with the roughly 11 percent drop in vehicles entering the zone, strengthening the evidence that reduced vehicle activity contributed to the observed air quality improvements. Monitoring data also showed fewer pronounced rush hour spikes in 2025, suggesting the policy reduced both average pollution levels and short-term spikes in measured concentrations.

While this study did not evaluate the health benefits of reducing PM2.5, even small changes in fine-particle pollution can matter for public health. Fine particles are linked to cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and reducing exposure is generally expected to improve health outcomes.

The researchers also evaluated a possible increase in PM2.5 at two monitoring sites just outside the congestion zone, near the Brooklyn Queens Expressway and in Mott Haven. The estimated increase, about 0.5 micrograms per cubic meter, did not meet conventional levels of statistical significance, but continued monitoring will help determine whether this localized spillover persists.

“It would be premature to say there were definitely increases that were directly attributable to the congestion pricing policy,” Westervelt said.

Satellite observations added context to the ground-level findings. Tropospheric nitrogen dioxide, a traffic-related pollutant that can contribute to respiratory problems and the formation of smog, declined by more than 20 percent across the New York City metropolitan area in 2025 compared with a 2018-2024 baseline.

Although nitrogen dioxide levels fell slightly more in lower Manhattan than in other city boroughs, the difference wasn’t large enough to attribute the reductions to congestion pricing. The satellite data likely reflect broader regional influences, including other air-quality policies, with congestion pricing potentially contributing to the overall decline.
The analysis also found no evidence that nitrogen dioxide concentrations increased in the outer boroughs, suggesting the policy didn’t lead to detectable increases in this pollutant in surrounding areas.

Outcomes beyond the congestion zone

By comparing conditions inside and outside Manhattan’s congestion zone, the study provides one of the first neighborhood-scale estimates of the program’s impact on air quality in a U.S. city. This evidence of how New York’s program affected air quality during its first year may help inform policymakers and urban planners in the city and elsewhere.

The results also highlight the importance of evaluating congestion pricing policies across a broad area, not just within the congestion zone, to understand how pollution patterns shift.

Westervelt said longer-term analyses, including additional pollutants and improved satellite observations, will help determine how durable the first-year improvements in air quality prove to be as traffic patterns continue to adjust to the policy.

The study was coauthored by Abhishek Anand of Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and Daniel L. Goldberg of the Milken Institute School of Public Health at George Washington University.

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Journal

Environmental Science & Technology Letters

DOI

10.1021/acs.estlett.6c00610

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Study Links NYC Congestion Pricing Policy to Cleaner Air In Lower Manhattan

Article Publication Date

7-Oct-2026

 

Vulnerability to heatwaves varies greatly from one area to another within cities

The SAREN group at the University of the Basque Country (EHU) has rolled out a methodology to measure the vulnerability of buildings and open public spaces to heatwaves

University of the Basque Country

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image caption: From left to right: members of the SAREN research group, Ane Larrinaga, Ane Villaverde, Olatz Ocerin, Laura Quesada, Ziortza Egiluz, Leire Garmendia, Joseba Gordo, Irantzu Alvarez, Maider Rekondo, Estibaliz Briz, and Estefania Jaramillo.

 Photo: Fernando Gómez. EHU

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Credit: Photo: Fernando Gómez. EHU

Extreme weather events are getting increasingly more frequent and severe as a result of climate change. Heatwaves are a prime example, as they have direct effects on health, thermal comfort and the liveability of cities, which is why it is vital to conduct climate risk assessments to guide cities’ adaptation policies and prioritise action in the most vulnerable areas.

The SAREN (Sustainable And Resilient built ENvironment) research group at the University of the Basque Country (EHU), led by Leire Garmendia, is assessing the effectiveness of adaptation solutions that can be used to minimise the impact of heatwaves on buildings and outdoor spaces in cities. The research is being carried out as part of the OLADAPT project, funded by Spain’s Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, in collaboration with the Polytechnic University of Madrid, the University of Extremadura and the UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Development and Environmental Education at the EHU, in line with the guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

“We are looking at how to conduct a multi-dimensional and multi-scale assessment of the risk posed by heatwaves in urban areas. The risk posed by heatwaves is not measured solely by temperature; it has multiple dimensions,” explains the group’s researcher, Irantzu Álvarez. Implementing more appropriate policies involves taking into account, firstly, how the city is built (both buildings and public spaces); secondly, the areas of the city hardest hit by high temperatures; and finally, the number of people affected by this situation and the degree of vulnerability or lack of protection of the people living there. “In this study, we have measured the vulnerability of each of the city’s buildings and open spaces in Bilbao, Madrid and Cáceres (all three located in different climate zones),” adds researcher Laura Quesada.

The methodology developed by the EHU’s SAREN research group makes it possible to produce urban vulnerability maps that clearly show where priority action should be taken to tackle heatwaves: “Adaptation measures can be implemented much more effectively with this type of study,” they say. Furthermore, applying the methodology in these three cities has shown that “the methodology is fully replicable; it can be used anywhere. This makes the methodology more robust. It is a genuinely useful tool for municipalities and cities.”

Buildings in lower socioeconomic areas are more vulnerable

In all three cities, the study has highlighted “the importance of socioeconomic variables when measuring vulnerability. People on low incomes, older people, etc. are far re vulnerable,” the research group states. Vulnerability is not the same throughout a city. It is therefore not enough to say that one city is more vulnerable than another, because there are different hotspots within the city. There may also be different situations within the same neighbourhood, which is why this type of detailed research is necessary.”

The research used a large amount of data drawn from a variety of sources. Socioeconomic variables, building characteristics and environmental variables were all taken into account. For example, “a building may be sensitive to heat, but its residents may have the financial means to protect their home from it,” they explain. Álvarez and Quesada explain that the fact that the unit of analysis is the building is what allows adaptation measures to be better targeted: “This methodology shows which buildings or types of buildings should be renovated or adapted first.” Furthermore, the impact of the surrounding environment on the building has also been measured, which has made it possible to link the building’s vulnerability to that of open public spaces: “Buildings may be highly vulnerable but have plenty of green areas and shade around them. Taking all of this into account means that adaptation measures can be implemented in different ways.”

Additional information

Laura Quesada is an architect specialising in the restoration and conservation of historic heritage, and works at the Vitoria-Gasteiz School of Engineering. Irantzu Álvarez is a Technical Engineer in Surveying and holds a degree in Geography, and works at the Bilbao School of Engineering.  Both are lecturers on the Master’s Degree in Construction Engineering at the Bilbao School of Engineering.

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Journal

Cities

DOI

10.1016/j.cities.2026.107514

Article Title

Assessing urban heatwave vulnerability through a multiscale and multicriteria GIS-based approach: Evidence from three Spanish cities

700,000-year-old elephant tooth reveals a lost ecosystem shared by early humans in the levant

Ancient tooth reveals a lost world inhabited by giant elephants and early toolmakers

Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee

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The study was conducted by PhD candidate Hannah Farrell of the University of Haifa at a site excavated by Prof. Gonen Sharon of Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee.

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Credit: Photos and illustrations courtesy of Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee and Hannah Farrell, University of Haifa

A remarkably preserved elephant tooth previously recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (GBY-NBA) — a prehistoric site in northern Israel, where early humans made stone tools some 700,000 years ago — has now enabled researchers to reconstruct a lush landscape of woodlands, wetlands, and waterways from the Pleistocene. The findings provide a rare glimpse into the environment shared by giant elephants and some of the region's earliest human populations.

The elephant remains were discovered alongside basalt handaxes and cleavers, hallmark tools of the Acheulian tradition, one of the earliest and most widespread stone-tool technologies in human history. Researchers combined multiple analytical techniques to reconstruct a resource-rich environment of woodlands, grasslands, wetlands, and waterways that helped sustain both large mammals and early humans along the Levantine land bridge connecting Africa and Eurasia.

Published in Quaternary Science Reviews, the study led by Hannah Farrell (a PhD candidate at Haifa University) focuses on findings from the excavation site of GBY-NBA by Prof. Gonen Sharon of Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee and his colleagues. The research focuses on a giant elephant molar and tusk fragments discovered alongside Acheulian stone tools at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Daughters of Jacob Bridge), located in the Jordan Rift Valley, south of today's Hula Valley in northern Israel. The remains belonged to Palaeoloxodon antiquus, the straight-tusked elephant, one of the largest land mammals of the Pleistocene. Rather than studying the elephant alone, researchers used the tooth as a biological archive to reconstruct the broader ecosystem shared by large mammals and early human toolmakers.

 

What an Ancient Ecosystem Reveals About Human Origins

According to Prof. Sharon, "understanding how humans and animals responded to environmental change hundreds of thousands of years ago helps us better understand the forces that shaped our species."

Using CT scanning, 3D reconstruction, microscopic wear analysis, isotope geochemistry, and pollen studies, the team found evidence for a long-lasting landscape of woodlands, grasslands, marshes, rivers, and shallow-water habitats. Carbon isotope values suggest the elephant lived in a consistently well-watered environment, while pollen recovered from sediments revealed abundant wetland vegetation, including reeds, sedges, willow, tamarisk, and aquatic plants.

The findings indicate that the Hula Valley region formed part of a stable ecological refuge within the Levantine Corridor, the land bridge connecting Africa and Eurasia. Such environments likely provided reliable water and biological resources for wildlife and human groups moving through the region during the Pleistocene.

"The availability of water, vegetation, and animal resources shaped where humans and wildlife could survive," Sharon says. "The wetlands, rivers, and woodlands of the Hula Valley helped sustain life along one of the world's earliest migration corridors, offering a rare opportunity to understand the ecological conditions that supported both animals and human populations nearly 700,000 years ago."

The study was conducted by PhD candidate Hannah Farrell of the University of Haifa at a site excavated by Prof. Gonen Sharon of Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee, in collaboration with Cheryl A. Makarewicz (isotope studies) and Nimrod Marom (archaeozoology) from the University of Haifa, along with Minji Jin and Dafna Langgut (pollen studies) from Tel Aviv University.

 

About Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee 

Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee is a rapidly growing research university addressing challenges in food security, sustainable agriculture, engineering, artificial intelligence (AI), and more.

Through interdisciplinary applied research, academic excellence in a host of disciplines - including humanities, social sciences, and education - as well as close collaboration with industry and communities, Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee is tackling some of the most pressing challenges of the 21st century, while positioning the Galilee as a global hub for innovation.

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Journal

Quaternary Science Reviews

DOI

10.1016/j.quascirev.2026.110277

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Elephant dental remains from the Acheulian site at North Bridge Acheulian–Gesher Benot Ya'aqov: hominin behavior and environmental implications

Article Publication Date

15-Nov-2026

The research focuses on a giant elephant molar and tusk fragments discovered alongside Acheulian stone tools at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov in northern Israel. The remains belonged to Palaeoloxodon antiquus, the straight-tusked elephant, one of the largest land mammals of the Pleistocene.

The elephant remains were discovered alongside basalt handaxes and cleavers, hallmark tools of the Acheulian tradition, one of the earliest and most widespread stone-tool technologies in human history.

A remarkably preserved elephant tooth previously recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (GBY-NBA) — a prehistoric site in northern Israel, where early humans made stone tools some 700,000 years ago — has now enabled researchers to reconstruct a lush landscape of woodlands, wetlands, and waterways from the Pleistocene. The findings provide a rare glimpse into the environment shared by giant elephants and some of the region's earliest human populations.

Rather than studying the elephant alone, researchers used the tooth as a biological archive to reconstruct the broader ecosystem shared by large mammals and early human toolmakers.

The remains belong to Palaeoloxodon antiquus, the straight-tusked elephant, one of the largest land mammals of the Pleistocene. 

The research focuses on a giant elephant molar and tusk fragments discovered alongside Acheulian stone tools at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Daughters of Jacob Bridge), located in the Jordan Rift Valley, south of today's Hula Valley in northern Israel.

Credit

Photos and illustrations courtesy of Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee and Hannah Farrell, University of Haifa

 

Ancient origins of mammalian suckling and swallowing uncovered

Ohio University

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An international team of researchers has uncovered new evidence illuminating the evolutionary origins of one of the defining features of mammals: the ability to suckle and consume milk during infancy. Their findings, published in Nature, suggest that key anatomical structures required for mammalian suckling, swallowing and breastfeeding behaviors evolved nearly 165 million years ago, long before the appearance of modern mammals.

The findings describe a newly discovered species called Megacauda sungei, a large mammaliaform that lived during the Middle Jurassic Period in what is now Inner Mongolia, China. The research was led by scientists from the University of Chicago, Shenyang Normal University, Shandong University of Science and Technology, the University of Bonn and Ohio University.

Using high-resolution microCT imaging, the team reconstructed the skull and skeletal anatomy of the fossil. They discovered an unexpected combination of traits. Megacauda had specialized blade-like cheek teeth resembling those of modern seals, a platypus-like pelvis, and an otter-like tail, indicating it was likely a semiaquatic predator that hunted small vertebrates and invertebrates in freshwater environments.

More significantly, the researchers identified a pair of small bony projections on the roof of the mouth that closely resemble features found in living therian mammals, a group that includes marsupials (such as kangaroos and opossums) and placental mammals, (such as elephants and humans). In modern mammals, these structures help support the soft palate and muscles involved in suckling, swallowing and protecting the airway.

Because soft tissues are rarely preserved in fossils, scientists have long struggled to determine when these important feeding structures first evolved.

“The anatomy of Megacauda suggests that structures involved in coordinating swallowing and sucking had already begun to evolve by the Middle Jurassic. This discovery helps us better understand the biological foundations of one of the defining characteristics of mammals: feeding young with milk,” said Zhe-Xi Luo, Ph.D., professor of organismal biology and anatomy at the University of Chicago and senior author of the study.

The researchers also found highly specialized hyoid bones in the throat region. In living mammals, these bones help anchor muscles for swallowing. Together, the evidence suggests that Megacauda likely possessed an early version of the coordinated muscular system used by modern mammals to move milk and food safely from the mouth to the esophagus.

The discovery challenges a longstanding assumption about how these structures evolved. Researchers found that the newly identified therian-like bony hooks existed alongside more primitive bony ridges known from earlier mammaliaforms and mammalian ancestors. Their coexistence in the same animal suggests the modern structures did not evolve directly from the primitive ridges as previously believed.

“This fossil captures an important stage in mammalian evolution,” said Luo. “For decades, scientists have wanted to know when the soft-tissue structures necessary for suckling and complex swallowing first appeared. Megacauda provides some of the clearest evidence yet that many of these innovations emerged well before the rise of modern mammals.”

The research also has important implications for understanding living mammals. While therian mammals use a sophisticated suckling mechanism supported by soft palate and constrictor muscles, monotremes such as platypuses and echidnas use a different method for obtaining milk and lack some of these anatomical features. The new evidence suggests that monotremes likely lost elements of the ancestral suckling apparatus during their evolutionary history and developed an alternative method of milk intake.

Beyond feeding biology, Megacauda highlights the remarkable ecological diversity of mammaliaforms living alongside dinosaurs. At approximately the size of a modern otter, it is among the largest known Jurassic mammaliaforms and represents one of the earliest examples of adaptation to a semiaquatic lifestyle.

“These discoveries continue to reveal that the Age of Dinosaurs was also a time of extraordinary evolutionary innovation among early mammals,” said Peishu Li, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Biomedical Sciences at the Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine and a co-author of the study.

The study’s authors include April I. Neander and Zhe-Xi Luo, Ph.D., (University of Chicago); Yikun Li and Honggang Zhang, Ph.D., (Shenyang Normal University, China); Chang-Fu Zhou, Ph.D., (Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China); Thomas Martin, Ph.D., (University of Bonn, Germany); and Peishu Li, Ph.D., (Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine).

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Journal

Nature

Method of Research

Imaging analysis

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

An early predecessor to mammals could swim, suckle and swallow

Article Publication Date

7-Oct-2026

 

Some of those ancient sea predators were built for surprise attacks

Rutgers researcher links tail shape to different hunting styles among the giant marine reptiles known as mosasaurs

Rutgers University

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A mosasaur leaps from the water to snatch prey in this artist’s depiction. A Rutgers-led study suggests differences in the tails of these ancient marine reptiles helped shape their hunting strategies.

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Credit: Illustration by Henry Sharpe/Formoso Lab/Rutgers University

Some of the giant marine reptiles that ruled the seas during the age of dinosaurs were better built for surprise attacks, while their relatives were better suited to chasing prey through open water, according to a Rutgers-led study.

These animals, known as mosasaurs, were a group of lizards adapted to life in the ocean. Researchers reconstructed the bodies of four kinds of mosasaurs from their fossil skeletons, then applied principles of physics to estimate how quickly each could surge forward with a single powerful sweep of its tail.

The calculations suggest that a particularly large Tylosaurus, one kind of mosasaur, could have reached about 15 miles per hour with a single tail stroke. That estimate describes a brief burst, rather than the speed the animal could maintain. Although the exact speeds remain uncertain, the differences among the animals offer clues to how they hunted.

The research, published in Current Biology, was led by Kiersten Formoso, an assistant professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources in the Rutgers School of Environmental and Biological Sciences.

“At the same time dinosaurs likeT. rex were ruling the land, mosasaurs were ruling the seas,” Formoso said.

Understanding how these predators caught their meals, she said, helps scientists reconstruct how ancient ocean ecosystems worked.

Modern audiences may recognize mosasaurs from the Jurassic World films and the Apple TV series Prehistoric Planet. Formoso consulted on two seasons of the documentary series and early versions of this research helped inform its depictions of mosasaur movement.

Her scientific question began with a difference in the fossils. Two major branches of the mosasaur family tree had differently proportioned tails. Could those differences have affected how quickly the animals launched an attack?

Previous research had largely focused on cruising, a steady type of swimming in which an animal repeatedly beats its tail to move through the water. Formoso wanted to examine the sudden burst that could help a predator seize prey or a smaller animal escape being eaten.

The team modeled a movement it calls a “slam-start.” An animal curls its tail to one side, then forcefully sweeps it back, pushing against the water and driving its body forward.

Formoso compared that initial surge to a swimmer pushing off the wall of a pool.

“It’s the tail itself pushing off the water,” she said.

The nearly complete fossils provided detailed information about body size and tail shape. To reconstruct the missing tail muscles, the researchers drew on the anatomy of living lizards, including Komodo dragons.

The team tested a range of assumptions about muscle power, tail flexibility and resistance from the water to see whether the findings held up under different conditions.

Across the tested conditions, two species, Platecarpus and Tylosaurus, achieved faster lunges for their body size than Mosasaurus and Plotosaurus. Platecarpus was the fastest of the four.

The advantage came largely from a longer, flexible section of the tail that allowed Platecarpus and Tylosaurus to curl it farther before sweeping it back. How far the tail could curl had a much larger effect on the modeled speeds than  all other conditions

Such an advantage would favor ambush hunting in shallowseas, the researchers said. Mosasaurus and especially Plotosaurus appear to have been better suited to pursuing prey in the open ocean.

“That doesn’t mean Plotosaurus was slow,” Formoso said. “Its tail was built for sustained, tuna-like swimming rather than sudden bursts.”

The findings agree with other clues to mosasaur lifestyles, including studies of bite force, tooth wear, and the chemical makeup of fossils.

The study also has a New Jersey connection: Alongside the four main reconstructions, the team modeled exceptionally large animals, including a Mosasaurus based on a fossil from New Jersey held by the New Jersey State Museum in Trenton.

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to put numbers on burst swimming performance in any marine reptile from the age of dinosaurs. They are making their tools freely and publicly available so other researchers can apply the approach to additional extinct swimmers, including animals with no close living equivalent.

Formoso’s broader research examines how animals with land-dwelling ancestors evolved to live in water. Her approach rests on a simple fact: The physical rules that govern swimming today also applied millions of years ago

"Physics is physics,” she said.

Explore more of the ways Rutgers research is shaping the future.

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Journal

Current Biology

DOI

10.1016/j.cub.2026.09.036

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Mosasaur tail morphology reveals burst swimming performance and ecological diversity

Article Publication Date

7-Oct-2026