In decision-making, biases are an unconscious tendency that are difficult to eradicate

This is according to a study conducted in primates, published in Current Biology, led by Ruben Moreno Bote and Gabriela Mochol, researchers at the Center for Brain and Cognition, in collaboration with Roozbeh Kiani, a researcher at New York University

UNIVERSITAT POMPEU FABRA - BARCELONA

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IMAGE: OUTLINE OF THE WORK BY MORENO ET AL., PUBLISHED IN CURRENT BIOLOGY view more 

CREDIT: UPF

often, humans display biases, i.e., unconscious tendencies towards a type of decision. Despite decades of study, we are yet to discover why biases are so persistent in all types of decisions. "Biases can help us make better decisions when we use them correctly in an action that has previously given us great reward. However, in other cases, biases can play against us, such as when we repeat actions in situations when it would be better not to", says Rubén Moreno Bote, coordinator of the UPF Theoretical and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory.

In these cases, decisions are guided by tendencies, or inclinations, that do not benefit our wellbeing. For example, playing the lottery more regularly after winning a small consolation prize is a common bias that unfortunately does not tend to improve our financial situation.

The aim of the research was to establish how biases arise in decision-making using mathematical models and neural recordings

A study led by professor Rubén Moreno Bote's laboratory, with Grabriela Mochol, researchers at the Center for Brain and Cognition (CBC) at the UPF Department of Information and Communication Technologies (DTIC), in collaboration with the experimental laboratory of professor Roozbeh Kiani of New York University (USA), has studied how biases arise in decision-making using mathematical models and neural recordings in primates. The study was published by the authors on 26 February in the journal Current Biology.

A task dealing with the perception of visual stimuli

The experimental block of the study consisted of a visual perception task in which a monkey observed a certain stimulus, specifically moving dots. The primate had to decide whether there were more dots moving to the right or to the left. Trial after trial, the animal performed this monotonous decision-making process.

The authors found that primate developed two types of bias: a "slow" tendency to indicate right (or left) that lasted several minutes, despite not having any net tendency in the set of stimuli used, and a "fast" tendency that lasted scarcely a few seconds, resulting from the actions had just been made in the previous decision.

The neural representation of biases is similar to the neural representation of relevant information for solving a certain task

"For this research, we study how the prefrontal cortex, which is crucial in decision-making, encodes the two identified biases (slow and fast). The main result of the study shows that the neural representation of biases is similar to the neural representation of relevant information for solving a certain task. This would seem to indicate that the format in which biases and information are coded in the brain are very similar, so similar that it is difficult to distinguish them", points out Moreno Bote, study principal investigator.

And he adds: "We still have much to understand, but the results of this research could explain why biases are so prevalent in decision-making, and why, much to our regret, they are so difficult to eradicate".

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Related work:

Gabriela Mochol, Roozbeh Kiani, Rubén Moreno Bote (2021) "Prefrontal cortex represents heuristics that shape choice bias and its integration into future behavior", Current Biology, 26 february. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.068

 

Face masks are a ticking plastic bomb

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK

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IMAGE: DISPOSED FACEMASKS COLLECTED IN ODENSE CITY, DENMARK. view more 

CREDIT: ELVIS GENBO XU/SDU

Recent studies estimate that we use an astounding 129 billion face masks globally every month - that is 3 million a minute. Most of them are disposable face masks made from plastic microfibers.

- With increasing reports on inappropriate disposal of masks, it is urgent to recognize this potential environmental threat and prevent it from becoming the next plastic problem, researchers warn in a comment in the scientific journal Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering.

The researchers are Environmental Toxicologist Elvis Genbo Xu from University of Southern Denmark and Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering Zhiyong Jason Ren from Princeton University.

No guidelines for mask recycling:

Disposable masks are plastic products, that cannot be readily biodegraded but may fragment into smaller plastic particles, namely micro- and nanoplastics that widespread in ecosystems.

The enormous production of disposable masks is on a similar scale as plastic bottles, which is estimated to be 43 billion per month.

However, different from plastic bottles, (of which app. 25 pct. is recycled), there is no official guidance on mask recycle, making it more likely to be disposed of as solid waste, the researchers write.

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Collection of photos of disposed facemasks in the environment in the city of Odense, Denmark.

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Elvis Genbo Xu/SDU

Greater concern than plastic bags:

If not disposed of for recycling, like other plastic wastes, disposable masks can end up in the environment, freshwater systems, and oceans, where weathering can generate a large number of micro-sized particles (smaller than 5 mm) during a relatively short period (weeks) and further fragment into nanoplastics (smaller than 1 micrometer).

- A newer and bigger concern is that the masks are directly made from microsized plastic fibers (thickness of ~1 to 10 micrometers). When breaking down in the environment, the mask may release more micro-sized plastics, easier and faster than bulk plastics like plastic bags, the researchers write, continuing:

- Such impacts can be worsened by a new-generation mask, nanomasks, which directly use nano-sized plastic fibers (with a diameter smaller than 1 micrometer) and add a new source of nanoplastic pollution.

- The researchers stress that they do not know how masks contribute to the large number of plastic particles detected in the environment - simply because no data on mask degradation in nature exists.

- But we know that, like other plastic debris, disposable masks may also accumulate and release harmful chemical and biological substances, such as bisphenol A, heavy metals, as well as pathogenic micro-organisms. These may pose indirect adverse impacts on plants, animals and humans, says Elvis Genbo Xu.

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collected face masks in city of Odense, Denmarnk

CREDIT

Elvis Genbo Xu/SDU

What can we do?

Elvis Genbo Xu and Zhiyong Jason Ren have the following suggestions for dealing with the problem:

1. Set up mask-only trash cans for collection and disposal
2. consider standardization, guidelines, and strict implementation of waste management for mask wastes
3. replace disposable masks with reusable face masks like cotton masks
4. consider development of biodegradable disposal masks.

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I ain't afraid of no ghosts: people with mind-blindness not so easily spooked

The link between mental imagery and emotions may be closer than we thought

UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

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IMAGE: PEOPLE WITH APHANTASIA - THAT IS, THE INABILITY TO VISUALISE MENTAL IMAGES - ARE HARDER TO SPOOK WITH SCARY STORIES, A NEW UNSW SYDNEY STUDY SHOWS. view more 

CREDIT: UNSPLASH

People with aphantasia - that is, the inability to visualise mental images - are harder to spook with scary stories, a new UNSW Sydney study shows.

The study, published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, tested how aphantasic people reacted to reading distressing scenarios, like being chased by a shark, falling off a cliff, or being in a plane that's about to crash.

The researchers were able to physically measure each participant's fear response by monitoring changing skin conductivity levels - in other words, how much the story made a person sweat. This type of test is commonly used in psychology research to measure the body's physical expression of emotion.

According to the findings, scary stories lost their fear factor when the readers couldn't visually imagine the scene - suggesting imagery may have a closer link to emotions than scientists previously thought.

"We found the strongest evidence yet that mental imagery plays a key role in linking thoughts and emotions," says Professor Joel Pearson, senior author on the paper and Director of UNSW Science's Future Minds Lab.

"In all of our research to date, this is by far the biggest difference we've found between people with aphantasia and the general population."

To test the role of visual imagery in fear, the researchers guided 46 study participants (22 with aphantasia, and 24 with imagery) to a blackened room before attaching several electrodes to their skin. Skin is known to become a better conductor of electricity when a person feels strong emotions, like fear.

The scientists then left the room and turned the light off, leaving the participants alone as a story started to appear in the screen in front of them.

At first, the stories started innocuously - for example, 'You are at the beach, in the water' or 'You're on a plane, by the window'. But as the stories continued, the suspense slowly built, whether it was a dark flash in the distant waves and people on the beach pointing, or the cabin lights dimming as the plane starts to shake.

"Skin conductivity levels quickly started to grow for people who were able to visualise the stories," says Prof Pearson. "The more the stories went on, the more their skin reacted.

"But for people with aphantasia, the skin conductivity levels pretty much flatlined."

To check that differences in fear thresholds didn't cause the response, the experiment was repeated using a series of scary images instead of text, like a photo of a cadaver or a snake bearing its fangs.

But this time, the pictures made the skin crawl equally in both groups of people.

"These two sets of results suggest that aphantasia isn't linked to reduced emotion in general, but is specific to participants reading scary stories," says Prof. Pearson. "The emotional fear response was present when participants actually saw the scary material play out in front of them.

"The findings suggest that imagery is an emotional thought amplifier. We can think all kind of things, but without imagery, the thoughts aren't going to have that emotional 'boom'."

Living with aphantasia

Aphantasia affects 2-5 per cent of the population, but there is still very little known about the condition.

A UNSW study published last year found that aphantasia is linked to a widespread pattern of changes to other cognitive processes, like remembering, dreaming and imagining.

But while most previous aphantasia research focused on behavioural studies, this study used an objective measure of skin conductance.

"This evidence further supports aphantasia as a unique, verifiable phenomenon," says study co-author Dr Rebecca Keogh, a postdoctoral fellow formerly of UNSW and now based at Macquarie University.

"This work may provide a potential new objective tool which could be used to help to confirm and diagnose aphantasia in the future."

The idea for this experiment came after the research team noticed a recurring sentiment on aphantasia discussion boards that many people with the condition didn't enjoy reading fiction.

While the findings suggest that reading may not be as emotionally impactful for people with aphantasia, Prof. Pearson says it's important to note that the findings are based on averages, and not everyone with aphantasia will have the same reading experience.

The study was also focused on fear, and other emotional responses to fiction could be different.

"Aphantasia comes in different shapes and sizes," he says. "Some people have no visual imagery, while other people have no imagery in one or all of their other senses. Some people dream while others don't.

"So don't be concerned if you have aphantasia and don't fit this mould. There are all kinds of variations to aphantasia that we're only just discovering."

Next, Prof. Pearson and his team at the Future Minds Lab plan to investigate how disorders like anxiety and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder might be experienced differently by people with aphantasia.

"Aphantasia is neural diversity," says Prof. Pearson. "It's an amazing example of how different our brain and minds can be."

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To be involved in this type of research and learn more about aphantasia and the Future Minds Lab, visit https://www.futuremindslab.com/aphantasia.

How a ladybug warps space-time

Vienna quantum physicists measure the smallest gravitational force yet

UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA

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IMAGE: THE GOLD BALL USED IN SIZE COMPARISON WITH A 1 CENT COIN. ACCORDING TO EINSTEIN'S GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY, EVERY MASS BENDS SPACE-TIME view more 

CREDIT: © TOBIAS WESTPHAL / ARKITEK SCIENTIFIC

Gravity is the weakest of all known forces in nature - and yet it is most strongly present in our everyday lives. Every ball we throw, every coin we drop - all objects are attracted by the Earth's gravity. In a vacuum, all objects near the Earth's surface fall with the same acceleration: their velocity increases by about 9.8 m/s every second. The strength of gravity is determined by the mass of the Earth and the distance from the center. On the Moon, which is about 80 times lighter and almost 4 times smaller than the Earth, all objects fall 6 times slower. And on a planet of the size of a ladybug? Objects would fall 30 billion times slower there than on Earth. Gravitational forces of this magnitude normally occur only in the most distant regions of galaxies to trap remote stars. A team of quantum physicists led by Markus Aspelmeyer and Tobias Westphal of the University of Vienna and the Austrian Academy of Sciences has now demonstrated these forces in the laboratory for the first time. To do so, the researchers drew on a famous experiment conducted by Henry Cavendish at the end of the 18th century.

During the time of Isaac Newton, it was believed that gravity was reserved for astronomical objects such as planets. It was not until the work of Cavendish (and Nevil Maskelyne before him) that it was possible to show that objects on Earth also generate their own gravity. Using an elegant pendulum device, Cavendish succeeded in measuring the gravitational force generated by a lead ball 30 cm tall and weighing 160 kg in 1797. A so-called torsion pendulum - two masses at the ends of a rod suspended from a thin wire and free to rotate - is measurably deflected by the gravitational force of the lead mass. Over the coming centuries, these experiments were further perfected to measure gravitational forces with increasing accuracy.

The Vienna team has picked up this idea and built a miniature version of the Cavendish experiment. A 2 mm gold sphere weighing 90 mg serves as the gravitational mass. The torsion pendulum consists of a glass rod 4 cm long and half a millimeter thick, suspended from a glass fiber a few thousandths of a millimeter in diameter. Gold spheres of similar size are attached to each end of the rod. "We move the gold sphere back and forth, creating a gravitational field that changes over time," explains Jeremias Pfaff, one of the researchers involved in the experiment. "This causes the torsion pendulum to oscillate at that particular excitation frequency." The movement, which is only a few millionths of a millimeter, can then be read out with the help of a laser and allows conclusions to be drawn about the force. The difficulty is keeping other influences on the motion as small as possible. "The largest non-gravitational effect in our experiment comes from seismic vibrations generated by pedestrians and tram traffic around our lab in Vienna," says co-author Hans Hepach: "We therefore obtained the best measurement data at night and during the Christmas holidays, when there was little traffic." Other effects such as electrostatic forces could be reduced to levels well below the gravitational force by a conductive shield between the gold masses.

This made it possible to determine the gravitational field of an object that has roughly the mass of a ladybug for the first time. As a next step, it is planned to investigate the gravity of masses thousands of times lighter.

The possibility of measuring gravitational fields of small masses and at small distances opens up new perspectives for research in gravitational physics; traces of dark matter or dark energy could be found in the behavior of gravity, which could be responsible for the formation of our present universe. Aspelmeyer's researchers are particularly interested in the interface with quantum physics: can the mass be made small enough for quantum effects to play a role? Only time will tell. For now, the fascination with Einstein's theory of gravity still prevails. "According to Einstein, the gravitational force is a consequence of the fact that masses bend spacetime in which other masses move," says first author Tobias Westphal. "So what we are actually measuring here is, how a ladybug warps space-time."

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Publication in Nature:

Measurement of Gravitational Coupling between Millimeter-Sized Masses
Tobias Westphal, Hans Hepach, Jeremias Pfaff, Markus Aspelmeyer
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03250-7

Venom-extraction and exotic pet trade may hasten the extinction of scorpions

UNIVERSITY OF TURKU

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VIDEO: VENOM-EXTRACTION TRADE MAY HASTEN THE EXTINCTION OF SCORPIONS AS VAST NUMBERS ARE HARVESTED FROM NATURE TO ILLEGAL SCORPION FARMS. RESEARCH HAS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE CONSERVATION EFFORTS AND STOPPING... view more 

CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF TURKU

An article published by the researchers of the Biodiversity Unit at the University of Turku, Finland, highlights how amateur venom-extraction business is threatening scorpion species. Sustainably produced scorpion venoms are important, for example, in the pharmacological industry. However, in the recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of people involved in the trade and vast numbers of scorpions are harvested from nature. This development is endangering the future of several scorpion species in a number of areas.

Scorpions have existed on Earth for over 430 million years. Currently comprising over 2,500 extant species, scorpions occur on almost all the major landmasses in a range of habitats from deserts to tropical rainforests and caves. All scorpions are predators and use their venom to subdue and paralyse prey, as well as for defence.

Scorpion venoms are very complex and they are used in biomedical research. Despite their reputation, most scorpion species are harmless to humans, and in only approximately 50 species the venom is life-threatening. Scorpion stings cause around 200 fatalities each year.

"Interest towards scorpion venom has unfortunately led to the situation where enormous amounts of scorpions are collected from nature. For example, a claim was spread in social media in Iran that scorpion venom costs ten million dollars per litre. As the situation escalated, illegal scorpion farms were established in the country and tens of thousands of scorpions were collected into these farms. Simultaneously, businesses devoted to training people in captive husbandry and rearing, marketing, and bulk distribution of live scorpions began to flourish. As a result, many species are quickly becoming endangered," says Doctoral Candidate Alireza Zamani from the Biodiversity Unit at the University of Turku, Finland.

Biodiversity loss is accelerating at an alarming rate because of population growth and the related unsustainable overexploitation of natural resources. According to the estimate of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), as many as million different species are in danger of becoming extinct in the next decades if this development is not slowed down.

"It is important to understand that long before a species disappears, the number of individuals in the populations decrease and the species becomes endangered. This means that the risk of becoming extinct has increased. With scorpions, the pressure to overharvest populations for venom-extraction and exotic pet trade threatens especially species with a small range. Scorpions also breed relatively slowly when compared with several other invertebrates. In addition to the increased pressure to harvest these animals, they are also threatened by habitat destruction," notes Professor of Biodiversity Research Ilari E. Sääksjärvi from the University of Turku.

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Androctonus crassicauda is one of the scorpion species threatened by the escalated venom-extraction business.

CREDIT

Alireza Zamani

Scorpion species are poorly known - research helps in conservation efforts

Research has a very important role in stopping the biodiversity loss. Our understanding of biodiversity is still inadequate and as much as 80 percent of the living organisms on Earth are unknown to science. Protecting biodiversity requires more and more researched information.

"Scorpion species are still poorly known. It is vital for the protection of scorpions to produce more information about the species and get them under conservation. At the moment, only few scorpion species are protected. At the same time, we should ensure that the local communities are sufficiently informed about scorpions and their situation. With knowledge, we can help people to understand that many species are endangered and in danger of becoming extinct due to the overharvesting. It is also important to make sure that people understand that there is no market for the venom produced by amateur scorpion farms," says Zamani.

The researchers of the Biodiversity Unit at the University of Turku are specialised in mapping out species in poorly documented areas. Each year, the researchers discover and describe dozens of species new to science.

"These studies help us to better understand the biodiversity loss and its factors. Many species currently suffer from the exotic animal trade that is enormous on a global scale. Our goal is to continue to shine light also on scorpions. It is important that people understand these magnificent animals better. Their importance for humans is great as well. As species become extinct, we also lose all the possibilities that their complex venoms could offer, for example, to drug development," emphasises Professor Sääksjärvi.

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It is easy to collect scorpions at night time. The animals glow under a UV lamp, so one person can collect thousands of scorpions in one night. In the photo, there are hundreds of Mesobuthus eupeus scorpions in the tanks of an illegal farm in Iran.

CREDIT

Alireza Shahrdari

Fishers at risk in 'perfect storm'

UNIVERSITY OF EXETER

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IMAGE: FISHERS IN NEWLYN, CORNWALL view more 

CREDIT: LAURENCE HARTWELL

Stormier weather will increasingly force fishers to choose between their safety and income, researchers say.

Climate change is causing more extreme weather in many locations. Storms will likely increase around the UK in the future, while many fishers in the UK also face economic insecurity.

The new study - led by the University of Exeter - worked with fishers in Cornwall to understand how they balance the risks and rewards of fishing in varying conditions.

Factors that made skippers more likely to risk fishing in high wind or waves included: being the main earner in their household, poor recent fishing success, and having a crew to support.

"Climate change and economic insecurity create a 'perfect storm', putting ever-increasing pressure on skippers," said lead author Dr Nigel Sainsbury.

"Fishing is already the most dangerous peacetime profession in the UK, and the combination of more extreme weather and financial challenges will only make this worse.

"Solving this problem is difficult.

"Our suggestions include policies that improve the safety of boats and support less vulnerable fishing methods, and the creation of insurance products that pay fishers to stay in port in dangerous conditions."

The research team included scientists from the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) and the universities of East Anglia, Bristol and North Carolina Wilmington.

Researchers presented skippers with various scenarios with differing factors including wave height, wind speed, likely catch and price - and asked them which trip they would prefer, or whether they would stay ashore.

"Skippers working with a crew were more likely to 'push the weather'," Dr Sainsbury said.

"This could partly be explained by the fact it's safer to fish with a crew than alone, but might also be because skippers feel responsible for providing incomes for their crew - even if the conditions are risky."

Fishers were asked to score their fishing success over the previous month on a scale of one to five - and catch levels were more important to those with low scores, which would lead them to take greater risks if they expected a good catch.

Boat size and fishing method also affected decision making. Unsurprisingly, skippers of larger boats and those whose method was less risky in high winds or waves were more willing to go out in such conditions.

The study included 80 skippers at seven Cornish ports, and fishing methods included otter board trawl, purse seines, gillnets, tangle nets, trammel nets, hand lines and pots.

"By taking a human behavioural perspective, this study provides new understanding of how changing storminess can impact fisheries," Dr Sainsbury said.

"We have shown that fishers' trade-offs of physical risk and fishing rewards are influenced by technical, social and economic factors.

"This study provides insights that could be very helpful in trying to predict levels of disruption to the fishing industry in the future as a result of changing storminess and climate change."

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Funding for the study came from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Cefas and Willis Research Network.

The paper, published in the journal Global Environmental Change, is entitled: "Trade-offs between physical risk and economic reward affect fishers' vulnerability to changing storminess."

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Fishers in Newlyn, Cornwall

CREDIT

Laurence Hartwell